Typha L. (PROSEA)

Plant Resources of South-East Asia Introduction

List of species

Typha L.

Protologue: Sp. pl.: 971 (1753); Gen. pl. ed. 5: 418 (1754).

Family: Typhaceae

Chromosome number: x= 15;T. domingensis: 2n= 30;T. orientalis: 2n= 60

Major species and synonyms

• Typha domingensis Pers., Syn. pl. 2: 532 (1807), synonyms: T. angustata Bory & Chaubard (1832) , T. angustifolia auct. Fl. Malesianae (1951), non L. (1753).

• Typha orientalis C. Presl, Abh. Königl. Böhm. Ges. Wiss., ser. 5, 6: 599 (1851), synonym: T. muelleri Rohrb. (1869).

Vernacular names

• General: cattail, reedmace, bulrush (En). Massette (Fr)
• Indonesia: lembang (Jakarta), embet (Javanese), ampet (Madurese)
• Philippines: balañgot (Tagalog, Samar-Leyte Bisaya, Panay Bisaya), homai-homai (Bisaya), kaid-ked (Pangasinan)
• Thailand: kok chaang (central), thuup ruesee (Bangkok), yaa salaap luang (northern)
• Vietnam: (chi) cỏ nền, hương bồ (thao).

Origin and geographic distribution

Typha comprises (8-)15(-20) species most of which are widely distributed throughout the temperate, subtropical and tropical zones of both hemispheres. As the taxonomy is still not clear and identification of the taxonomical units often difficult the mentioned areas of distribution of individual taxa are tentative. T. domingensis occurs in the subtropical and tropical zones north and south of the equator in both hemispheres. In Malesia it has been recorded from Java and Sumba. T. orientalis is widespread in the Philippines, Taiwan, Japan, New Guinea and Australia.

Uses

It is unlikely that the closely related Typha species have been distinguished for practical purposes as their properties are so similar. For this reason general information is provided for the genus as a whole. Stems and leaves are woven into various products, such as mats, hats, bags, baskets, slippers and chair-seats. In the Philippines the stems and leaves are also used for tying, and they are sometimes twisted into coarse, weak ropes. The leaves serve for thatching. The floss (flower hairs) of the ripe female inflorescence has been used for stuffing. In the Philippines and Indo-China it has also been applied as a haemostatic to wounds and ulcers. In Papua New Guinea cattails are used as torches, and in Java the unripe spikes have been used as fuses. The stems and leaves are processed into paper, e.g. in China. Cattails have been found suitable for the production of textiles and fibreboard, but their use seems very limited in this respect.

The rhizomes, young shoots and pollen are eaten. In Vietnamese and Chinese traditional medicine, the pollen is considered to be diuretic and haemostatic, and the rhizome to be a diuretic, laxative, tonic and galactagogue. Cattails are sometimes grown as ornamentals, and the spikes are used for decoration. The stems have been made into sticks. T. domingensis and other Typha spp. are useful in aquatic plant systems for wastewater treatment.

Production and international trade

Typha as a fibre plant is only collected from the wild. No production statistics are available.

Properties

The stems and leaves of all cattails are tough and fibrous. The leaves are suitable for caulking, because they swell when wet. Paper made from cattails is fairly strong but difficult to bleach. The floss from female inflorescences has a high buoyancy and good insulating properties, both for heat and sound. No information is available on the chemical properties of T. domingensis and T. orientalis .

The seeds contain a drying oil similar in quality to linseed oil. Aqueous extracts of T. domingensis have shown phytotoxic properties, inhibiting the germination of lettuce and radish seeds and the growth of the water fern Salvinia minima Willd.

The 1000-seed weight is 0.02-0.03 g.

Adulterations and substitutes

A range of Cyperaceae and Pandanaceae may be used for weaving instead of cattails.

Description

Palustrine or aquatic, monoecious, perennial, glabrous herbs with long, creeping rhizomes and unbranched, solid, erect stems. Leaves in two series, partly subradical, partly cauline, sheathing, elongate-linear, rather thick and spongy; sheath excreting slime on its inner side. Inflorescence unisexual, cylindrical, spike-like, superposed; bract at base foliaceous, caducous; flowers numerous, small, closely packed. Male inflorescence situated above female one and flowering earlier; male flowers consisting of 2-3 flattened, hair-like, simple or branched bracts (or perianth-leaves) surrounding 2-5(-7) stamens; filaments connate, anthers basifixed. Female inflorescence 1, rarely 2, sometimes separated from the male inflorescence by a short interval; rachis densely covered by more or less cylindrical, wart-like, short excrescences bearing one to several fertile or sterile flowers with or without narrow, hair-like bracteoles widened into a short, flat, often dentate leaf blade which sometimes can be seen on the velvety surface of the inflorescence; fertile flowers consist of a fusiform ovary borne on a very thin stalk (gynophore) surrounded by a whorl of hairs at its base; style distinct, short and thin; stigma flattened, linear to spatulate; sterile female flowers either similar to fertile ones but with undeveloped ovary, or the pistil swollen and broadly club-shaped. Fruit a very small, 1-seeded follicle falling off before dehiscence together with its stalk. Seed striate.

• T. domingensis . Flowering stem up to 3 m tall. Leaves green or yellowish-green; sheath of upper leaves not auriculate or only in the uppermost 1 or 2 ones; blade up to 2 m × 0.5-1.5 cm. Male and female inflorescences separated by 2-5.5 cm. Male inflorescence 15-33 cm × 0.6-1 cm, pollen shed as single grains. Female inflorescence 12-40 cm × 0.5-2 cm, cinnamon-brown; floral bracts abundant, broadly spatulate, 4-8 cells wide; stigma narrowly linear, pointed and folded longitudinally.

• T. orientalis . Flowering stem up to 3 m tall. Leaves bluish or grey-green; sheath of uppermost 2-4 leaves distinctly auriculate; blade up to 2 m × 0.5-1.5 cm. Male and female inflorescences contiguous or 3.5-5 cm apart. Male inflorescence 10-30 cm × 0.7-1.4 cm; pollen shed as single grains. Female inflorescence 8-30 cm × 1-3 cm, chestnut-brown; floral bracts absent or few, narrowly spatulate, 3-4 cells wide; stigma narrowly lanceolate, often folded longitudinally.

Growth and development

Cattail seeds readily germinate in open wet areas, but mortality is high and few seedlings reach the reproductive stage. The seedlings can survive either submerged in water or emerged. Once the plant is established, within a year after germination, rhizome growth starts and becomes the main mechanism maintaining a stand. Buds in 2 rows on each side of the rhizome apex may develop into new rhizomes or shoots.

The pollen is transported by wind. On windy days cross-pollination may occur, but on calm days self-pollination is likely. Estimates of the number of seeds per inflorescence are up to about 340 000 for T. orientalis and 680 000 for T. domingensis . The number of seeds per m²has been estimated at 6 million and 17 million for T. orientalis and T. domingensis , respectively. The fruits are easily transported by wind, with the hairs serving as parachutes. Within minutes of contact with water the follicular tissues saturate and split open, and the seed is released. Seeds remain viable for a long period if conditions are unfavourable for germination. Cattails are perennials, with their rhizome enabling them to survive periods of cold and drought. Individual shoots do not live longer than 1 year. In Australia a maximum standing biomass of 1.3 kg dry matter per m²and a maximum underground biomass of 3.6 kg per m²have been recorded for T. orientalis .

Other botanical information

The species concept within Typha is highly controversial and a review of the genus is badly needed. Interspecific hybridization occurs within Typha , adding to the confusion. The species are mainly distinguished by the presence or absence of a naked interval on the axis between the inflorescences, the presence or absence and shape of bracteoles and swollen pistils, the width and shape of the stigma and the relative length of the various parts of the female flowers which result in a characteristic surface pattern.

According to Flora Malesiana only 1 Typha species is present in Malesia, T. angustifolia L. in a very wide sense. However, most authors consider T. angustifolia as a species of temperate climates only. Typical T. angustifolia is 2-2.5 m tall, leaves flat, and male and female inflorescences clearly separated. In the female inflorescence the stigmas are apically widened, dark brown, shorter than the bracts which are narrow, brown and irregularly directed so that the surface pattern does not show any special order.

T. javanica Schnizl. is by some considered a synonym of T. domingensis , but more probably it is a separate species. In the latter view T. domingensis has female inflorescences on which surface only the extremely narrow-filiform bracts are visible, hiding the white hairs and the stigmas; T. javanica (widespread in Malesia, particularly in Indonesia) has female inflorescences on which surface between the narrowly filiform, cinnamon- to reddish-brown bracts islands of short-spatulate, incurved stigmas are visible.

From the literature it is not clear whether T. elephantina Roxb. from India also occurs in South-East Asia. The plants are up to 4 m tall. It has a very stout and long female inflorescence, 3-4 cm in diameter. Throughout the whole length of the inflorescence surface, between brown bracts islands of capitate, pale, apically truncate pistillodia are present.

T. latifolia L., a native of temperate regions of the northern hemisphere, could sometimes have been introduced in South-East Asia as it is in many other parts of the world (e.g. Australia). It is 2-2.5 m tall with about 2 cm wide leaves. The leaves are convex on the abaxial surface, in transverse section sickle-shaped due to the presence of a thick aerenchyme layer. The female inflorescence is very dark brown, bracts are lacking, stigmas are broadly ligulate.

Ecology

Cattails grow in marshy locations, in shallow pools and along the margins of often stagnant, fresh or brackish water, along irrigation channels and in rice fields. They are known to grow at a water depth of up to 2 m. However, cattails vary in their tolerance to water depth, with e.g. T. domingensis tolerating deeper water than T. latifolia . In Malesia cattails occur up to about 1700 m altitude.

Cattails are often associated with disturbed, fertile environments. They grow on a variety of soil types, but are usually found on fine-textured organic muds and silts, which have a high nutrient content and water-retention capacity. They are considered moderately salt-tolerant, but growth is significantly reduced at salinities higher than 3-5 ppt. Permanent salinities of 7 ppt or higher exceed the tolerance limits of T. domingensis . The success of cattails in brackish environments seems to stem from their ability to grow rapidly when fresh water is available and to persist in a dormant state under saline conditions.

Cattails are often considered weeds. They are able to dominate vegetations, because their bulky rhizome and their tall, dense canopy give them a competitive advantage. The formation of monospecific stands is aided by a mat of dead cattail material, which prevents the establishment of other species, but which also may prevent growth of cattail seedlings. Cattails readily colonize disturbed areas where water is available, and they may block irrigation and drainage channels. They also increase water loss because of their high transpiration. In Australia both T. domingensis and T. orientalis are considered major aquatic weeds.

Propagation and planting

Cattails are propagated by rhizome division or seed. T. domingensis seeds do not germinate without light.

Husbandry

Cultivation of cattails is easy along the margins of natural or artificial pools. Where they are weeds, they may be controlled effectively by cutting or crushing below the water level or by spraying with glyphosate.

Yield

Cattails are highly productive. In Australia an aerial dry matter production of 3.7 kg per m²per year has been recorded for T. orientalis . For T. domingensis in Cuba the aerial biomass production has been estimated at 1.3-1.5 kg dry matter per m²per year.

Handling after harvest

In the Philippines cattail culms may be split before being woven. For pulping, the fibre can be chemically extracted from stems and leaves together by treatment with sodium hydroxide.

Genetic resources and breeding

No germplasm collections or breeding programmes of cattails are known to exist.

Prospects

The importance of cattails in South-East Asia will probably remain limited to local use as sources of weaving material. On a worldwide scale they have potential as components of aquatic plant systems for the treatment of wastewater.

Literature

 1 Backer, C.A., 1951. Typhaceae. In: van Steenis, C.G.G.J. (Editor): Flora Malesiana. Series 1, Vol. 4. Noordhoff-Kolff, Jakarta, Indonesia. pp. 243-244. 2 Briggs, B.G., 1987. Typhaceae. In: George, A.S. (Editor): Flora of Australia. Vol. 45. Hydatellaceae to Liliaceae. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra, Australia. pp. 8-11. 3 Briggs, B.G. & Johnson, L.A.S., 1968. The status and relationships of the Australasian species of Typha. Contributions from the New South Wales National Herbarium 4: 57-69. 4 Finlayson, C.M., Forrester, R.I., Mitchell, D.S. & Chick, A.J., 1985. Identification of native Typha species in Australia. Australian Journal of Botany 33: 101-107. 5 Finlayson, C.M., Roberts, J., Chick, A.J. & Sale, P.J.M., 1983. The biology of Australian weeds. 2. Typha domingensis Pers. and Typha orientalis Presl. The Journal of the Australian Institute of Agricultural Sciences 49: 3-10.

• Galen Smith, S., 1987. Typha: its taxonomy and the ecological significance of hybrids. Ergebnisse der Limnologie 27: 129-138.
• Morton, J.F., 1975. Cattails (Typha spp.) - weed problem or potential crop. Economic Botany 29(1): 7-29. 8 van Steenis, C.G.G.J., 1972. Addenda, corrigenda et emendanda. Typhaceae. In: van Steenis, C.G.G.J. (Editor): Flora Malesiana. Series 1, Vol. 6. Noordhoff-Kolff, Jakarta, Indonesia. pp. 982-983.

Authors

H. Riedl