Changes

In general the most important textile and cordage fibre-yielding families are the ''Malvaceae '' (cotton, kenaf, roselle) and ''Tiliaceae '' (jute). Plants used for basketry are primarily found in the ''Cyperaceae, Gramineae, Palmae '' and ''Pandanaceae''. Material for thatching is often obtained from ''Gramineae '' (''Imperata '' spp., ''Miscanthus '' spp.), ''Palmae '' (''Borassus flabellifer'', ''Cocos nucifera'', ''Corypha utan '' Lamk, ''Eugeissona triste'', ''Nypa fruticans'') and ''Pandanaceae '' (''Pandanus '' spp.). Paper is mainly obtained from trees in the ''Pinaceae '' (''Pinus '' spp.) and ''Myrtaceae '' (''Eucalyptus '' spp.). The main non-wood sources of paper are ''Gramineae '' (bamboos, cereal straw). The major South-East Asian fibre plants treated in Chapter 2 comprise 72 species belonging to 25 plant families. Families with the greatest number of species are the ''Cyperaceae '' (11 species), ''Malvaceae '' (10 species), ''Palmae '' and ''Pandanaceae '' (5 species each), ''Tiliaceae, Gramineae'', and ''Thymelaeaceae '' (4 species each) and ''Agavaceae '' (3 species) (Table 9). All the 11 ''Cyperaceae '' are perennial herbs, whereas the 10 ''Malvaceae '' are herbs, shrubs or trees (Table 9). The 129 minor fibre plants treated in Chapter 3 belong to 37 plant families, with the greatest number of species in the ''Pandanaceae '' (23 species), ''Cyperaceae '' (14 species), ''Moraceae '' (12 species), ''Malvaceae '' (10 species), ''Tiliaceae '' (8 species), ''Urticaceae '' and ''Palmae '' (7 species each) and ''Leguminosae '' (6 species). 

- *Bast fibres ("soft fibres"): the soft and flexible fibres extending through the inner bark ("bast") of stems of dicotyledonous plants. The fibre strands of commerce usually consist of bundles of individual sclerenchyma fibre cells, the exception being ramie, where commercial fibres are single fibre cells. This group includes the fibres from jute, flax, hemp, sunn hemp, ramie, kenaf, roselle and Congo jute (''Urena lobata'').- *Bast: sometimes the bast fibres are not separated, but the bast is used entirely or in ribbons, often for rough cordage (e.g. ''Colona '' spp.). Formerly, bast sheets of ''Artocarpus elasticus '' and ''Broussonetia papyrifera '' were widely used in South-East Asia for the production of barkcloth.- *Wood fibres: the fibres occurring inside the vascular cambium of softwood or hardwood stems. Softwoods yield tracheids and xylem fibres, and hardwoods produce a mixture of tracheids, vessel elements and xylem fibres. Both softwoods and hardwoods are used in a wide range of papers. Examples of softwoods are ''Pinus '' spp., examples of hardwoods are ''Eucalyptus '' spp.- *Fibres from monocotyledonous stems: consisting mainly of vascular tissues and their sclerenchymatous bundle sheaths, and used for paper making and the production of building boards. Examples are cereal straw, bamboo, bagasse from sugar cane, and the stems of reeds such as ''Phragmites '' spp. Pulps from these materials typically have low strengths but can be blended with high-strength bark pulps to produce pulps with good paper-making characteristics.- *Entire or split stems: used for plaiting and weaving (many ''Cyperaceae''), for thatching (many ''Gramineae''), or for tying (e.g. ''Bauhinia '' spp. and ''Nepenthes '' spp.)- *Pith: sometimes used for paper making, e.g. in the production of ricepaper from ''Tetrapanax papyriferus '' (Hook.) K. Koch. The pith of the stem of ''Cyperus papyrus '' L. was used by early civilizations to make a primitive form of paper. 

- *Leaf fibres: fibres separated from the non-fibrous leaf tissue. The main leaf fibres are the "hard fibres" of commerce: the fibres extending lengthwise through the pulpy tissues of long leaves of monocotyledonous plants, with the fibres being characteristically hard and stiff in texture. The "hard fibres" include fibres from the vascular bundles in the leaves of ''Agavaceae '' such as sisal, henequen, cantala (''Agave cantala '' Roxb.), the leaf-sheaths in the pseudostems of abaca, and the petioles of ''Raphia '' spp.- *Entire leaves or leaf strips: used for plaiting and weaving (''Palmae '' and ''Pandanaceae''), thatching (many ''Palmae '' and ''Pandanaceae''), as platters (e.g. ''Heliconia indica''), and for packing (e.g. the leaf blades of ''Musa '' spp.). 

1.4.2 === Growth and development===

Most fibre plants treated in this volume are perennials (Table 9). Many of those that are harvested for leaf fibres are monocarpic: they flower only once after a certain number of leaves have formed, and die after flowering. Examples are the perennial herbs ''Agave cantala'', ''A. sisalana'', ''Furcraea foetida '' (L.) Haw., ''Musa textilis'', ''Phormium tenax'', ''Sansevieria roxburghiana '' J.A. Schultes & J.H. Schultes and ''S. trifasciata '' Prain, and the palms ''Corypha utan '' Lamk, ''Eugeissona triste'', ''Raphia farinifera '' (Gaertn.) Hylander, ''R. hookeri '' and ''R. vinifera '' P. Beauv. In sisal, for instance, 200-250 leaves are formed before the plant flowers. As the leaf emergence rate depends on ecological conditions (mainly temperature and rainfall) the lifespan of a sisal plant may vary from 3 to 20 years.Annual bast fibre plants such as jute, kenaf, roselle and flax are usually not allowed to complete their life cycle, because the fibres are located in the vegetative parts, and optimum fibre quality is obtained by harvesting immature plants. Seed and fruit fibre plants such as cotton and kapok, on the other hand, are harvested after completion of a generative phase. Cotton is basically a perennial plant with an indeterminate growth habit, but it is usually grown as an annual, with the formation of nodes on the main stem arrested by fruit load, temperature, soil moisture, photoperiod, or a combination of these factors.

1Annual bast fibre plants such as jute, kenaf, roselle and flax are usually not allowed to complete their life cycle, because the fibres are located in the vegetative parts, and optimum fibre quality is obtained by harvesting immature plants. Seed and fruit fibre plants such as cotton and kapok, on the other hand, are harvested after completion of a generative phase. Cotton is basically a perennial plant with an indeterminate growth habit, but it is usually grown as an annual, with the formation of nodes on the main stem arrested by fruit load, temperature, soil moisture, photoperiod, or a combination of these factors.5 Ecology

1The majority of the fibre plants treated in this volume, including abaca, cantala, coir, Congo jute, cotton, jute, kapok, roselle and sisal, grow best at average temperatures of about 25 °C.5Several species, such as kenaf, ramie and paper mulberry, also grow well at somewhat lower temperatures. Fibre hemp, flax, ''Juncus effusus'', ''Miscanthus'' spp., ''Phormium tenax'' and ''Tetrapanax papyriferus'' (Hook.) K. Koch require a temperate climate; in South-East Asia they can usually only be grown successfully at higher altitudes. Most fibre plants treated in this volume are not frost-hardy, but mature P. tenax is tolerant to frost and T. papyriferus may also survive light frost.2 Soil factors

The soil Rainfall requirements of vary widely. Among the perennial fibre plants vary, but rich alluvialthe minimum annual requirements of ''Sansevieria'' spp. (250 mm), sandy loams, loams ''P. tenax'' (500 mm) and clayey soils sisal (< 1000 mm) are generally preferred. The pH affects the efficient utilization of soil nutrients; generallylow, soils which but these crops are slightly acidic are suitable also found in areas with much higher rainfall, for instance 3500 mm for most of the species treated, though cantala ''P. tenax''. Cantala also prefers limestone soils. Most textile and cordage fibre plants, including abaca, cantala, kenaf, ramie, roselle and sisal, need wellsemi-drained soilsarid conditions, though it can be grown in higher rainfall areas as they do not tolerate waterlogging, but white jute (Corchorus capsularis Lwell.) is relatively tolerant to inundation in later development stages. Many plants used for weavingAbaca, on the other hand, grow in swampy or inundated locations: Donax canniformis, Juncus effusus, Phragmites vallatoria needs 2000-3000 mm of rainfall per year. Perennials with intermediate annual requirements include kapok and ''Thespesia lampas'' (Pluk. ex L.1500-1700 mm) J.F. Veldkamp, Typha spp. and Cyperaceae Monocarpic perennials such as Actinoscirpus grossus (Lsisal and cantala form fewer leaves per year and have a longer life cycle under dry conditions or at low average temperatures.f.) Goetgh. & D.A. SimpsonFor annual fibre crops, Cyperus spp.the rainfall during the growing season is more important than the total annual rainfall, Fimbristylis umbellariswith cotton, Lepironia articulata (Retzfor instance, needing at least 500 mm during the growing season.) DominIn general, Scirpodendron ghaeri (Gaertn.) Merr. jute and Schoenoplectus spp. A special case is Enhalus acoroideskenaf require about 100-125 mm per month, which is subaquaticflax 150-200 mm, Congo jute 160-210 and roselle 150-270 mm.

1Some fibre plants tolerate a wide range of ecological conditions. As such, they are easy to grow and in fact behave as weeds in many instances. ''Arundo donax'' L., for example, grows at average annual temperatures between 9 and 29 °C and an annual rainfall of 300-4000 mm.6 Agronomy

Although naturally occurring plants have been important sources The soil requirements of fibre since the beginning of historyplants vary, but rich alluvial, it is desirable for a viable industry to be able to obtain raw material from sustainable sandy loams, loams and well-managed farmers' plots or industrial plantationsclayey soils are generally preferred. Supply from The pH affects the wild may be sufficient efficient utilization of soil nutrients; generally, soils which are slightly acidic are suitable for the local needs most of communities in the immediate vicinity. Species collected from the wild are sometimes over-exploited and may be threatened with extinctionspecies treated, especially those with restricted and endemic distribution such as some Pandanus sppthough cantala prefers limestone soils. In the Philippines, for example, gatherers of fibre plants collect Most textile and sell cordage fibre plants from the wild for their livelihood and a shortage of some wild species has already arisen, for exampleincluding abaca, various rattan species. Neverthelesscantala, many species treated in this volume are collected from the wild and some have become important raw materials for local use kenaf, ramie, roselle and smallsisal, need well-scale cottage and handicraft industries. Sometimes propagules are collected from the wild and planted in home gardens or fieldsdrained soils, either as sole crops or as components of intercropping systemsthey do not tolerate waterlogging, but white jute (''Corchorus capsularis'' L.) is relatively tolerant to inundation in later development stages. Many of the perennial species intended plants used for domestic and local uses are intercroppedweaving, whereas annual herbs are mostly grown as sole crops. Industrial plantations of major crops on the other hand, grow in South-East Asia include those of cottonswampy or inundated locations: ''Donax canniformis'', abaca''Juncus effusus'', ramie''Phragmites vallatoria'' (Pluk. ex L.) J.F. Veldkamp, kenaf''Typha'' spp. and ''Cyperaceae'' such as ''Actinoscirpus grossus'' (L.f.) Goetgh. & D.A. Simpson, roselle''Cyperus'' spp., jute''Fimbristylis umbellaris'', cantala and sisal''Lepironia articulata'' (Retz.) Domin, the extent of which differs from country to country ''Scirpodendron ghaeri'' (Gaertn.) Merr. and depends on the requirements of domestic and export needs''Schoenoplectus'' spp. The stiff competition offered by fibre crop producing countries outside South-East Asia limits the scope for industrial plantations in the regionA special case is ''Enhalus acoroides'', which is subaquatic.

1== Agronomy == === Production systems === Although naturally occurring plants have been important sources of fibre since the beginning of history, it is desirable for a viable industry to be able to obtain raw material from sustainable and well-managed farmers' plots or industrial plantations. Supply from the wild may be sufficient for the local needs of communities in the immediate vicinity. Species collected from the wild are sometimes over-exploited and may be threatened with extinction, especially those with restricted and endemic distribution such as some ''Pandanus'' spp. In the Philippines, for example, gatherers of fibre plants collect and sell fibre plants from the wild for their livelihood and a shortage of some wild species has already arisen, for example, various rattan species. Nevertheless, many species treated in this volume are collected from the wild and some have become important raw materials for local use and small-scale cottage and handicraft industries. Sometimes propagules are collected from the wild and planted in home gardens or fields, either as sole crops or as components of intercropping systems. Many of the perennial species intended for domestic and local uses are intercropped, whereas annual herbs are mostly grown as sole crops. Industrial plantations of major crops in South-East Asia include those of cotton, abaca, ramie, kenaf, roselle, jute, cantala and sisal, the extent of which differs from country to country and depends on the requirements of domestic and export needs.6The stiff competition offered by fibre crop producing countries outside South-East Asia limits the scope for industrial plantations in the region.2  === Propagation and planting===

1Though most species can be propagated in several ways, often one specific method is practised.6Most annual fibre plants, including cotton, flax, hemp, jute, kenaf, roselle and sunn hemp, are propagated by seed.3 The preferred propagation methods for perennial fibre plants are mostly vegetative, for example using rhizome cuttings (ramie), suckers (cantala), bulbils (sisal, ''Furcraea foetida'') and corms (abaca). Kapok is propagated by either seed or cuttings, and in Indonesia seedlings are grafted with high-yielding clones. Although commonly used in other major crops, in vitro propagation techniques are rarely used in fibre crops, though they have been developed for abaca, cantala, sisal, paper mulberry, ''Juncus effusus'', ''Raphia'' spp. and ''Wikstroemia'' spp. The application of in vitro propagation techniques may prove beneficial in the near future, as this may be a way to provide disease-free and homogeneous plant material in sufficient quantities. At present, the only mass-propagation of fibre plants through in vitro culture in South-East Asia is with abaca in the Philippines, where tissue-cultured plants are used in replanting programmes. Many fibre plants, especially those with small seeds, are broadcast directly in the previously prepared field, but other crops are raised first in nursery seedbeds before being planted out. Adequate spacing between plants is required to allow for weeding and harvesting. Close planting is observed, for instance in jute, kenaf, roselle and ''Helicteres isora'', to avoid branching which would lower the quantity and quality of the fibre obtained. Sisal is sometimes planted in a double-row system ("twin-row planting"), in which pairs of rows are alternated by wider spaces ("lanes"); the plants in the rows nearest to each other are staggered, so that they are as far apart as possible (Lock, 1969). Table 11 presents an overview of commonly applied plant spacings and densities for the most important fibre crops. === Husbandry===

1Fertilizer recommendations depend on soil characteristics and nutrient uptake of the fibre crop.The nutrient uptake of flax, for instance, is relatively low: for a crop yielding 5-6t straw and 0.6-0.8 t seed per ha it is 50-75 kg N, 10-16 kg P and 40-60 kg K. Cotton and jute have moderate nutrient uptake. For a yield of about 1.7 t/ha seed cotton, the uptake is about 105 kg N, 18 kg P and 66 kg K per ha (Halevy & Bazelet, 1989). The uptake by 1 ha of ''Corchorus capsularis'' producing 2 t dry retted fibre is about 63 kg N, 14 kg P and 132 kg K (Dempsey, 1975). An example of a fibre plant with a high nutrient uptake is Congo jute: for a typical production of about 2.2 t dry retted fibre per ha, the nutrient uptake is 190 kg N, 24 kg P and 175 kg K per ha (Dempsey, 1975). The nutrient removal may be less than the nutrient uptake, because plant parts containing absorbed nutrients, such as leaves, are sometimes returned to the field. In flax, kenaf and roselle, for instance, stems are left to defoliate in the field after harvesting. In cotton, however, the destruction of harvested plants is prescribed to control pests and soil-borne diseases.4 Crop rotation and the use of organic fertilizers may also be applied to maintain soil fertility. === Crop protection=== Diseases and pests of fibre crops in South-East Asia include fungi, bacteria, viruses, nematodes, insects and parasitic plants. Important fungal diseases of fibre plants include seedling and stem rot (''Macrophomina phaseolina'') on jute and kenaf, white fungus disease (''Rosellinia necatrix'') on ramie, collar rot (''Phytophthora nicotianae'' var. ''parasitica'') on kenaf and roselle, ''Fusarium'' wilt on cotton, abaca, kenaf and roselle, and ''Verticillium'' wilt on cotton. An important bacterial disease is bacterial blight (''Xanthomonas campestris'' pv. ''malvacearum'') on cotton. Important virus diseases are bunchy top and abaca mosaic on abaca. Nematode problems are often caused by root-knot nematodes (''Meloidogyne'' spp.), for example on cotton and kenaf. Important pests include various bollworms on cotton, the jassid leaf hopper (''Amrasca biguttula'') on roselle, and the Mexican sisal weevil (''Scyphophorus interstitialis'') on sisal. Parasitic plants include ''Loranthaceae'', which damage kapok, and ''Orobanche ramosa'' L. on hemp (Wulijarni-Soetjipto et al., 1999). For many lesser-known species there is little or no information available on diseases and pests.

Diseases and pests of fibre crops in South-East Asia include fungi, bacteria, viruses, nematodes, insects and parasitic plants. Important fungal diseases of fibre plants include seedling and stem rot (Macrophomina phaseolina) on jute and kenaf, white fungus disease (Rosellinia necatrix) on ramie, collar rot (Phytophthora nicotianae var. parasitica) on kenaf and roselle, Fusarium wilt on cotton, abaca, kenaf and roselle, and Verticillium wilt on cotton. An important bacterial disease is bacterial blight (Xanthomonas campestris pv. malvacearum) on cotton. Important virus diseases are bunchy top and abaca mosaic on abaca. Nematode problems are often caused by root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.), for example on cotton and kenaf. Important pests include various bollworms on cotton, the jassid leaf hopper (Amrasca biguttula) on roselle, and the Mexican sisal weevil (Scyphophorus interstitialis) on sisal. Parasitic plants include Loranthaceae, which damage kapok, and Orobanche ramosa L. on hemp (Wulijarni-Soetjipto et al., 1999). For many lesser-known species there is little or no information available on diseases and pests.Control of diseases and pests includes cultural, chemical and biological methods. Cultural methods include field sanitation by destroying crop residues, eradication of affected plants or plant parts, destruction of weeds that serve as alternate or collateral hosts, the use of resistant genotypes and clean planting material, crop rotation, harvesting in the dry season, application of appropriate tillage practices and manual removal of pests. Cultural methods may be sufficient in small-scale agriculture, but they are often uneconomic in large-scale industrial plantations. Here, diseases and pests are usually controlled by chemicals, but care should be taken to reduce toxic side-effects. Chemical control is effective only if the timing is correct and often supplementary cultural methods are necessary. Cotton is notoriously sensitive to pests, which has led to excessive spraying of insecticides. Resistance breeding and approaches such as Integrated Pest Management (IPM), comprising a range of techniques including the use of specific cultivars, a short planting period, adequate fertilization, planting of trap crops, weekly pest monitoring, spraying with ''Bacillus thuringiensis '' at an early growth stage, the release of natural enemies (e.g. ''Trichogramma chilonis'') and the use of synthetic insecticides when the pest population reaches a critical level, are applied to reduce pesticide use in cotton (Pascua et al., 1997).

1.7 == Harvesting and processing==

1.7.1 === Harvesting===

1.7.2 === Post-harvest handling and processing===

==== Retting====

==== Scutching====

==== Chemical treatment====

==== Decortication====

==== Ginning====

==== Other mechanical procedures====

==== Further processing====

1.7.3 === Pulping===

==== Chemical pulping processes====

- *''Sulphite process'': one of the earliest chemical processes (Moore, 1996), normally involving the heating of raw material with a solution of NaHSO3 and/or Na2SO3 (McDougall et al., 1993). This process is less applied nowadays, because of the imperfect recovery of the chemicals (Moore, 1996). It is, however, still used for the production of papers with specific properties, such as sanitary and tissue papers which must be soft, absorbent and of moderate strength (McDougall et al., 1993).- *''Kraft or sulphate process'': the most widely used chemical pulping process, in which the raw material is treated with a solution of NaOH and Na2S, forming the reactive anions S2- and HS- (McDougall et al., 1993). A disadvantage is the occurrence of sulphur-based air emissions. The kraft process is well established for wood-based materials, but too severe for most non-wood materials, where lignin is less strongly bonded to the cellulose.- *''Soda process'': based on sodium hydroxide and widely used in the processing of non-wood fibres. Chemical recovery is straightforward and the virtual absence of reduced sulphur compounds in the process means that there are few emission problems. Yield improvements have been obtained by using additives such as anthraquinone. - *''Organosolv process'': an organic solvent or mixture of organic chemicals is used. This makes the recovery possible of all the components of the raw material (cellulose, hemicelluloses, lignin) and the solvent itself. The advantages over other chemical processes are higher pulp yields, easy bleaching, lower costs and less environmental stress. However, only an alcohol-based system has been developed into a commercial operation (Hague, 1997; Moore, 1996).

==== Mechanical pulping processes====

- *''Stone groundwood (SGW) process'': the earliest mechanical process, in which raw material is ground by means of a rotating stone. Resulting pulps have a short fibre length. The addition of long-fibre chemical pulp is often necessary to give the required strength to the final paper sheet.- *''Pressurized groundwood (PGW) process'': developed from the SGW process to produce pulps with better strength properties and using less energy. The process is basically the same except that the pulp is prepared at a steam pressure of 1-2 bar.- *''Refiner mechanical pulping (RMP) process'': chips of raw material are fed into a rotating disc refiner, which breaks them into single whole fibres. Subsequently some of the whole fibres are fibrillized (converted into fibrils and cell wall fragments), which enhances the bonding characteristics of the pulp. RMP production is usually a multi-stage process involving a primary and a secondary refiner. The energy consumption of RMP can be reduced by pretreatment of the raw material by chemicals before or during refining (chemi-refiner mechanical pulping, CRMP) or fungal treatment before mechanical refining (bio-refiner mechanical pulping, BRMP) (Sabharwal et al., 1995).- *''Thermo-mechanical pulping (TMP) process'': heat in the form of steam is applied to the raw material prior to fibre separation by means of disc refiners. Heating has a softening effect on the chips and reduces fibre damage during the mechanical action. TMP production is more energy intensive than SGW or RMP, but the pulp has better strength properties. Newsprint, for instance, can be manufactured from 100% TMP (Moore, 1996; Hague, 1997). A range of mechanical processes have been developed involving chemical pretreatment (mostly with sodium sulphite), either alone or in combination with a temperature pretreatment. Examples are the ''chemi-mechanical pulping (CMP) process'', the ''chemi-thermo-mechanical pulping (CTMP) process '' and the ''thermo-chemi-mechanical pulping (TCMP) process''. Of these, CTMP, using a pretreatment with 1-4% sodium sulphite, has become the most widely used. Most chemical pretreatments do not affect pulp yields, but only soften the chips prior to fibre separation. These essentially mechanically based processes are often difficult to distinguish from semi-chemical processes (Moore, 1996). Promising results have been obtained with CTMP and TMP for kenaf bark and comparable results may be obtained with other bast fibre crops (Wood, 1997). Processes with biological pretreatments (biomechanical pulping) are mainly based on the use of fast-growing lignin-degrading white rot fungi (''Phanerochaete chrysosporium '' and ''Phlebia tremellosa''). The pretreatment involves inoculation of the material followed by an incubation period of up to 4 weeks at 39 °C prior to fibre separation. Reductions in energy use and enhancement of strength properties of the pulp have been achieved (Moore, 1996). ==== Semi-chemical pulping processes ====

Semi-chemical pulping processesconsist of a chemical and a mechanical pulping stage. Wood chips are initially cooked in a digester, and then defibrated with disc refiners. Pulp yields are typically in the range of 65-85% (Hague, 1997). The principal semi-chemical pulping process is the ''neutral sulphite semi-chemical process (NSSC)'', which involves chemical pretreatment followed by refining (Hague, 1997; Moore, 1996). The major differences between this and chemically pretreated mechanical processes are the concentration of the chemicals used and the conditions under which the pretreatment takes place. The chemical treatment typically involves the use of up to 15% sodium sulphite by mass of material, and approximately 4-5% sodium carbonate by mass. The process has been used extensively for the production of pulps for corrugating media, as NSSC pulps have the necessary stiffness characteristics required. Other semi-chemical processes include the ''sodium bisulphite'', ''cold soda'', and ''neutral sulphite-anthraquinone (NS-AQ) processes'' (Moore, 1996).

==== Further processing==== Bleaching is used to remove or inactivate chromophores, and techniques used in paper making are similar to those used in textile industries. Most methods remove lignin not removed through pulping, though some techniques remove chromophores without degrading the residual lignin. Most bleaching techniques use Cl₂, NaOCl or ClO₂ as active agent. Chlorinated bleaching methods are efficient, but produce toxic and mutagenic effluents (McDougall et al., 1993; Nezamoleslami et al., 1998). Therefore, non-chlorinated bleaching agents, producing less toxic waste, are very much in demand nowadays. Examples are oxygenated agents such as O₂/OH-, H₂O₂ and O₃. However, the alkaline conditions used in oxygen bleaching cause swelling of the fibres, reducing their strength and hemicelluloses content, thereby reducing the ability of the fibres to bond together (McDougall et al., 1993). Another possibility is to replace chlorine-based bleaching of wood and non-wood pulps with biological bleaching using ligninolytic white-rot fungi, such as Phanerochaete chrysosporium and Trametes versicolor (Nezamoleslami et al., 1998).

1.7.4 === Boards===

1.7.5 === Artificial fibres===

The production of the artificial fibre rayon requires highly purified cellulose as raw material. Originally cotton was used, because of its high cellulose content, but it has almost entirely been replaced by wood fibres (McDougall et al., 1993). The cellulose is dissolved by soaking pulp in strong alkali (18% NaOH), after which hemicelluloses and degraded cellulose are removed with the excess alkali. The damp cellulose is shredded, aged in air, and made to react with CS2 CS₂ to form cellulose xanthate. After dissolution in aqueous NaOH a solution is formed known as "viscose", which is filtered and extruded while spinning into an acid bath. The xanthate groups are hydrolysed and the cellulose structure is re-established. The physical properties of the resulting product are mainly determined by the spinning conditions (McDougall et al., 1993).

1.8 == Genetic resources and breeding==

1.8.1 === Genetic resources===

 The cotton collection (COT) of the United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service (USDA/ARS) at College Station in Texas, United States, is the world largest repository for cotton germplasm. This genebank holds seed samples of some 9000 accessions, including about 4600 of ''Gossypium hirsutum '' L., 2500 of ''G. arboreum '' L., 1200 of ''G. barbadense '' L., 200 of ''G. herbaceum '' L. and various numbers of accessions of a further 37 ''Gossypium '' spp. Another very important cotton genebank is that of CIRAD (Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement) in Montpellier, France, with seed of 3600 accessions of the 4 main species and 31 other ''Gossypium '' spp. This latter collection is regularly evaluated and rejuvenated in grow-outs at a seed multiplication centre in Costa Rica (Hau, 1999). Smaller working collections of cotton germplasm are maintained by national agricultural research systems in China, India and several other cotton-producing countries. Molecular fingerprinting has contributed considerably to a better understanding of the genetic and genomic relationships between cotton varieties and species (Abdalla et al., 2001). Such information will facilitate more efficient utilization of cotton genetic resources in the future. The Bangladesh Jute Research Institute (BJRI) in Dhaka is the mandated world repository for germplasm of jute and its allied fibre crops kenaf and roselle. This genebank stores and maintains about 6000 accessions, including some 4000 for jute alone (''Corchorus capsularis'', ''C. olitorius '' L. and other ''Corchorus '' spp.). A duplicate set of seed samples for these accessions is stored in the genebank of the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO) in Canberra, Australia. Genetic resources for ''Linum usitatissimum '' (flax and linseed) totalling more than 3000 accessions, representing mostly landraces and cultivars, are conserved in genebanks of many countries including France (Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA), Versailles), the Netherlands (Centre for Genetic Resources (CGN), Wageningen), Germany (Bundesforschungsanstalt für Landwirtschaft (FAL), Braunschweig; Genebank, Institute for Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (IPK), Gatersleben), the Russian Federation (N.I. Vavilov Research Institute of Plant Industry, St Petersburg), United States (United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Beltsville), Canada (Plant Gene Resources of Canada (PGRC), Saskatoon), India (National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), Akola Regional Station), China (Institute of Crop Germplasm Resources, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Beijing), Australia, eastern European countries and Argentina (Fu et al., 2002; IPGRI, no date; Marshall, 1989). Molecular fingerprinting is also applied here to establish genetic diversity in flax and linseed germplasm (Fu et al., 2002). 

1.8.2 === Breeding===

 The three most important fibre crops (cotton, jute and its allied fibres kenaf and roselle, flax) are predominantly self-pollinating annual species which are multiplied by seed. The breeding methods commonly applied include line and pedigree selection - starting from landraces, older cultivars, or segregating progenies after crossing and backcrossing - all leading to uniform, homozygous cultivars. These are true to type and can be multiplied in seed blocks with simple precautions such as guard-rows and minimum distances (specific for each crop) to avoid illegitimate outcrossing. F1 F₁ hybrid cultivars with considerable hybrid vigour for yield have been successfully developed during the past two decades for cotton. However, the available systems of cytoplasmic male sterility have been inadequate for large-scale production of hybrid seed, mainly due to incomplete expression of fertility restorer genes in the male parents. Current use of cotton hybrids is limited to South Asia and China, where seed production by manual emasculation and pollination is economically feasible due to low labour costs (Hau et al., 1997). 

- *Cotton: photoperiod-insensitivity, early crop maturity, adaptation to mechanical harvesting (in industrialized countries), high quality lint fibre (length, fineness and strength), seed quality (oil content and low gossypol content by glandless plants), resistance to diseases (e.g. bacterial blight and ''Fusarium '' wilt) and pests (e.g. bollworms, jassids), and drought tolerance (Hau et al., 1997; Poehlman, 1987).- *Jute: early crop maturity and low photoperiod-sensitivity, finer and whiter fibre quality, resistance to diseases (''Macrophomina phaseolina'') and improved seed production (Dempsey, 1975).- *Flax: resistance to lodging, fibre quality (fineness, strength and homogeneity), disease resistance (anthracnose, ''Fusarium '' wilt, rust), oil content and fatty acid composition of the seed (Dempsey, 1975).

==== Molecular breeding==== Plant biotechnology is providing powerful new tools for plant breeding with the potential to increase selection efficiency and creating new approaches to hitherto unattainable objectives. Molecular marker technology is applied in many crops for germplasm characterization and management, accelerating gene introgression from related species and for marker-assisted selection (MAS). MAS enables early selection of important major genes (e.g. disease resistance) with molecular markers closely linked to the genes controlling the trait. In the case of polygenic traits (e.g. components of yield and quality) a more complex quantitative trait loci (QTL) analysis is required for the identification of significantly linked markers. A prerequisite to such a QTL analysis is the availability of a saturated genetic linkage map (Mohan et al., 1997). Genetic modification (GM) is still limited to characters controlled by major genes for which gene isolation and transfer is relatively easy. It also requires the possibility of routine application of transformation technologies and regeneration of plants from in vitro explants or embryogenesis. Tolerance to herbicides (e.g. glyphosate or glufosinate) and insect resistance based on Bt genes (derived from ''Bacillus thuringiensis'') are the main characters that have been successfully expressed and commercialized so far. Genetically modified soya bean, maize, cotton and rapeseed/canola crops were grown in 2001 on 52.6 million ha worldwide, with 96% of the area in North America and Argentina (James, 2001).

1.9 == Research and development==

=== Indonesia===

- *Indonesian Tobacco and Fibre Crops Research Institute, Malang : various aspects (agronomy, breeding, ecophysiology, plant protection), mainly of cotton, but also of jute, kapok, kenaf, ramie and roselle.- *Institute for Research and Development of Cellulose Industries, Bandung

=== Malaysia===

- *Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM), Kepong : utilization of kenaf for pulp and paper and composite products.- *Malaysian Agricultural Research & Development Institute (MARDI), Serdang : utilization of kenaf for animal feed.- *Malaysian Institute for Nuclear Technology (MINT), Kajang : utilization of kenaf for pulp and paper and composite products.- *University Putra Malaysia (UPM), Serdang : utilization of kenaf for composite products.

=== The Philippines===

- *Cotton Development Authority (CODA), Pasig City : cotton (all aspects).- *Fibre Industry Development Authority (FIDA), Department of Agriculture (DA), Quezon City : all aspects: propagation, production, utilization, etc.- *Forest Products Research and Development Institute (FPRDI), Department of Science and Technology (DOST), College, Laguna : research and development on fibre crops for pulp and paper, composite boards, furniture and handicrafts.- *Institute of Plant Breeding (IPB), University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB), College of Agriculture (CA), College, Laguna : propagation and breeding.- *National Abaca Research Centre (NARC), Leyte State University, Baybay : all aspects of abaca, e.g. collection and characterization of abaca germplasm, production and processing.- *Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Research and Development (PCARRD), Department of Science and Technology (DOST), Los Baños, Laguna : evaluation, monitoring and funding of research and development projects on fibre crops.- *Philippine Industrial Crops Research Institute (PICRI), University of Southern Mindanao (USM), Kabacan, North Cotabato : propagation and breeding.- *Philippine Textile Research Institute (PTRI), Department of Science and Technology (DOST) Complex, Bicutan, Taguig, Metro Manila : production and processing of fibre crops for textiles.

=== Thailand===

- *Department of Agriculture : research and development on cotton, jute and jute like fibre, kenaf. ; technology transfer to extensionists, farmers and companies.- *Department of Agricultural Extension : development and transfer of the fibre plant production practices to farmers.- *Department of Industrial Promotion : technology transfer with respect to the production of handicrafts and cloth from fibre plants such as jute, cotton and paper mulberry. ; promotion of the production of handicrafts from fibre plants.

1.10 == Prospects==

1=== Supply and demand === In South-East Asia, as in the rest of the world, many plants are available that produce fibres suitable for various end uses.10However, apart from woody species for paper making, only a few of them, such as cotton, abaca, jute, kenaf, roselle, sisal and ''Wikstroemia'' spp.1 Supply have reached the international market and persisted there. After the Second World War, demandfor plant fibres was high, but since then the demand for natural fibres (except cotton) has gradually decreased due to the development of synthetic fibres which are often cheaper to produce, more durable and easily converted into attractive designs and colours. More recently, however, growing concerns about environmental issues and hazards to the environment brought about by synthetics has led to renewed interest in plant fibres. Markets where plant fibres such as jute, kenaf, roselle and sisal may gain terrain over synthetic fibres include those for insulation, packaging, geotextiles, composites, filters, sorbents and active surfaces (Bolton, 1995). Because of its excellent fibre characteristics, cotton will undoubtedly remain an important commodity in the world market, and an increased share of South-East Asia in world cotton production seems attainable.

- *They can be derived from annual crops, which can be grown as part of existing farming systems; the total area planted is easily adapted to changes in world demand.- *Low lignin content.- *Reduced chemical usage and effluent.- *Decreased use of forest resources and, where fibres are extracted from agricultural wastes, less emissions of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide arising from the burning of these waste products). 

- *Supply problems. Large stocks and adequate storage at constant quality by drying or ensilage may be necessary to service large-scale operations. Alternatively, where non-wood pulp mills are based on agricultural residues or annual crops that are grown in scattered locations, they must be kept small to minimize transport costs, which means they cannot benefit fully from the economies of scale enjoyed by wood-based mills.- *Difficult chemical recovery. Non-wood fibrous materials usually have higher ash and silica contents. Most of the silica dissolves during cooking and remains as an undesirable component in the spent pulping liquor. There are no commercial installations with operating recovery systems for use with non-wood fibrous materials. The size of operation also has an impact on the chemical recovery problem. If the technical problems of chemical recovery in non-wood pulping are solved along the lines of today's pulping process technology, the size and cost of chemical recovery, effluent treatment and other control measures will increase, which will reduce much of the financial advantage non-wood fibre pulping has had in some regions.- *Some annual plants have a low fibre content. Miscanthus spp. have only a 30% fibre fraction and flax a 20% usable bast fibre. In grasses, nodes are often unwanted and need to be separated out. Potential paper-making species for South-East Asia include jute, kenaf, roselle, paper mulberry, ''Arundo donax'', ''Helicteres isora'', and ''Miscanthus '' spp. Abaca and ''Wikstroemia '' spp. have potential in the market for specialty papers. 

- *Lower yields, partly because of the lack of research and development work on lesser-known species.- *Lower product quality and more difficult processing techniques needed for them, thereby increasing production costs.- *Environmental and ecological factors restricting massive production: some species are suited only for a specific region with specific environmental conditions.- *The weedy behaviour of many species such as ''Cyperus, Malachra '' and ''Miscanthus '' spp. discouraging cultivation.- *Unwanted morphological characters of species, such as the irritating hairs of ''Abroma augusta '' and the spines of ''Corypha utan'', rendering them less attractive for mass production. 

1.10.2 === Research priorities===

- *Development of germplasm collections for lesser-known species (cultivated or wild-harvested) with high potential. Germplasm collections will help conserve and preserve species that may be found suitable for production in the future, especially those with a limited distribution.- *Breeding programmes for lesser-known fibre plants, focusing on fibre yield and quality (homogeneity, degree of lignification, strength, fineness and water uptake characteristics), improved ecological adaptation and resistance to diseases and pests. For industrial fibres, e.g. for paper making, productivity is an important factor. In cases where conventional breeding methods are difficult to use, breeding programmes should be complemented with research and development on a range of biotechnological techniques.- *Establishment of industrial plantations for economic exploitation of potential species, e.g. ''Wikstroemia '' spp., to ensure a continuous supply of raw materials for various end-uses.- *Development of improved cropping practices and processing methods.- *Development of mechanical harvesting methods, preferably combined with fibre extraction.- *Product improvement, product diversification and waste utilization. In many cases, not only fibres but also other products can be obtained from the same crop, thus enhancing crop value, as multiple-use crops will give a higher return. Waste-material and by-products may also be useful, for instance sisal short fibres, poles and boles for pulping, and leaf waste for animal feed.- *Substitution of established products by those from lesser-known species; e.g. ''Donax canniformis '' is sometimes substituted for rattans, which are increasingly being over harvested from the wild. == Authors ==