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Heyne (1927), Burkill (1935), Brown (1941-1943), Corner (1966) and Dransfield (1979) have listed the various local uses of rattans. The uses are so numerous that a complete enumeration is impossible. Rattans are used in the making of baskets, mats, furniture, broom handles, carpet beaters, walking sticks, fish traps, animal traps, sun blinds, bird cages and for almost any other purpose requiring strength and elasticity combined with lightness. Houses, fences, bridges and even boats are bound together with rattan, often without the use of a single nail. Ropes for tethering buffaloes, mooring ropes, anchor and bridge cables are also made from rattans. Old rattan leaflets are woven for thatching, young leaflets are used as cigarette papers, young shoots or "cabbage" are eaten, rattan fruits variously used as fruit and medicine, and "Dragon's blood" obtained from the fruit scales of a few species was previously used as a dye, varnish and in local medicine.
International trade in rattan dates to the mid 19th Century (Corner, 1966; Whitmore, 1973). However, village level utilization in the Asian region spans many centuries. Some early trade information is given in Burkill (1935).
Singapore was the clearing house for practically the entire rattan output of the South East Asia and the western Pacific at the turn of the 20th Century. From 1922 1927 it exported from 27 500 16 000 t, mainly to Hong Kong, the United States and France, in that order. During this period, exports from Kalimantan and Sulawesi increased from 9 400 19 300 t and 10 300 21 800 t respectively. Much of the raw material from Kalimantan was re exported through Singapore and Sulawesi. However, processing and further conversion were mainly done elsewhere.
By the 1970s Indonesia had become the supplier of about 90% of the world's requirements of raw rattan. In 1977, Singapore, which has no commercially harvestable rattan resources, earned more than US$ 21 million from processing and converting rattan into semi -finished products, with about 90% of its supplies coming from Indonesia (Menon, 1980). In the same year, Hong Kong, also without raw rattan of its own, imported more than US$ 26 million worth of rattan and rattan products which, after conversion and manufacture, was worth US$ 68 million in export value. By comparison, Indonesia's share of the trade, mainly of unprocessed canes, was only US$ 15 million.
External trade in rattan and rattan products has undergone great expansion in recent decades. Details of world trade in rattan and rattan products are provided by Manokaran (1990a). The increases in the value of exports from the main producer countries are striking: 250 fold over 17 years in Indonesia, 75 fold over 15 years in the Philippines, 23 fold over 9 years in Thailand, and 12 fold over 8 years in Malaysia. The combined value of exports for these four countries had risen to an annual figure of almost US$ 400 million by the late 1980s, with Indonesia accounting for almost US$ 200 million. The entire export of the Philippines and Thailand, and almost half of that of Malaysia, was of furniture. Net revenue derived from the sale of rattan goods by the two "middle men" countries, Taiwan and Hong Kong, together totalled about US$ 200 million in the late 1980s. Much of the partially processed and semi finished rattan material exported to European countries was converted to high value added products, mostly furniture.
During the 1980s, Thailand, the Philippines, Indonesia and Malaysia banned the export of rattan except as finished products. These bans have been imposed in order to stimulate the development of rattan based industries and to protect the wild resource. Indonesia, with 75 80% of the world's present production, has targeted export earnings of about US$ 600 million in the near future. Malaysia's target for export earnings from rattan furniture is about US$ 60 million by 1995.
The development of extensive local rattan taxonomies reflects the social significance of rattans. Classifications have evolved to deal with rattan as it grows in the forest and to serve the product in the trade. Widespread species may be referred to by many names, and where people from different language groups live near to each other, several names may be used even for local rattan species. Serious confusion has arisen from the uncritical use of vernacular names.
The following three examples illustrate the problems of interpreting local names. ''Calamus caesius '' Bl. is commonly referred to by Malay speakers as "sega", yet in the rattan growing area of Kalimantan Tengah, it is known as "taman"; throughout Sarawak it is known as "leutik", while "sega" is used for the related species ''Calamus optimus '' Becc. In Palawan, the presence of true ''Calamus caesius '' remained unrecorded until 1979 because "sika", the name by which it is called in Palawan, is said to be the vernacular name of an unrelated and rather rare species (''Calamus spinifolius '' Becc.) in Luzon (Merrill, 1922). Uncritical use of the lexicon of Philippine vernacular plant names obscured the presence of one of the best small diameter furniture canes, for which a cultivation procedure had already been developed that could have been transferred earlier to the Philippines (Dransfield, 1980). Incidentally, it was also responsible for the incorrect recording of ''Calamus spinifolius '' in Palawan. Another example is provided by the Malay name "rotan batu": in Peninsular Malaysia this is used fairly consistently for ''Calamus insignis '' Becc., a species with a stem diameter of 8 10 mm; in Sabah it is used for an unrelated species, ''Calamus subinermis '' Becc., which has a stem diameter of 18 25 mm. The final example is one of the most serious confusions: Heyne (1927) cites "tohiti" as the vernacular name of a rare, poorly known species, ''Calamus inops '' Becc. ex Heyne; herbarium specimens of this species have a stem diameter of about 12 mm. "Tohiti" is currently also used as a trade name for the best quality large diameter (22 30 mm) canes in Sulawesi. There is evidence of the use of "tohiti" for at least 4 species, yet the trade name "tohiti" has uncritically been referred to as ''Calamus inops'', which is unlikely to be correct because of the much smaller stem diameter of this species. Accounts of various aspects of the cane(s) known as "tohiti" have been published under the scientific name ''Calamus inops'', yet the results cannot refer to this species, and, in the absence of voucher specimens, the cane identity cannot be established; the experimental results are thus irreproducable and useless.
Therefore, great caution is required in the interpretation of vernacular names. In experimental work it is important to prepare herbarium specimens as vouchers, to provide an essential reference.
==== Habit====
Although most members of the 13 rattan genera are climbers, some species are short stemmed or acaulescent undergrowth palms that scarcely fit into the definition of rattan. Nevertheless, they belong to rattan genera, and those that are used are mentioned in this volume. Those species which have subterranean stems, such as ''Calamus minutus '' J. Dransf., occur as rosettes on the forest floor. Another group of non climbing rattan relatives are short stemmed and tend to scramble weakly in the undergrowth, such as ''Calamus myriacanthus '' Becc.. In a third group the stems are stiff and erect; good examples are provided by ''Calamus nanodendron '' J. Dransf. and ''C. arborescens '' Griff.; their stems are generally too stiff and heavy to be used for furniture.Rattans may be single stemmed as in Calamus manan Miq., or multiple stemmed as in C. caesius. The consequences for harvesting are obvious: single stemmed species provide a single harvest and do not regenerate from cut stumps, whereas multiple stemmed species can be harvested continually. Clumps are built up by the development of sucker shoots produced from axillary or leaf opposed buds at the base of the stem. Such buds usually develop as short rhizomes that then grow into aerial stems; in C. trachycoleus Becc. sucker shoots develop into stolons that may reach 3 m or more in length before metamorphosing into aerial stems. Usually vegetative buds are confined to the few basal nodes of the stem, and clumps are built up by the production of shoots from successive orders of suckers. Occasionally, vegetative shoots are produced some way up the aerial stem; the significance of such aerial shoots is not obvious as they rarely, if ever, seem to grow into new aerial stems. However, in most Korthalsia species and in Laccosperma opacum (G. Mann & H. Wendl.) Drude the stems regularly branch in the forest canopy, resulting in vast aerial entanglements that make harvesting these rattans extremely difficult. In a few unusual acaulescent rattans such as Calamus pygmaeus Becc. and Daemonorops ingens J. Dransf. vegetative reproduction can occur by the production of vegetative shoots from the tips of the inflorescences.
Little is known about the root system of rattans. Casual observations indicate that the root system of ''Calamus caesius'' may be complex, with widely radiating, horizontally growing roots, and short vertical root systems, some growing geotropically (i.e. downwards) and some growing apogeotropically (i.e. upwards) (Dransfield, 1979). The apogeotropic roots may be concentrated in the leaf litter layer, and frequently bear patches of loose corky tissue, usually associated with gas exchange. Nur Supardi has reported that roots of ''Calamus manan'' can radiate from the base of the plant as far as 8 m. ==== Stem==== Rattan stems, the canes of the rattan trade are, in the young state, covered by tight, usually densely spiny, leaf sheaths; as the stem ages and the lower leaves die and drop off, the stem becomes exposed. In most genera the leaf sheaths eventually erode away to leave a clean and smooth stem surface, but in the endemic African genera and ''Korthalsia'' Bl., remnants of the sheaths remain adhering closely to the stem surface.
Stems can vary from a few mm to over 10 cm in diameter. The longest cane recorded was 175 m long (Burkill, 1935). If left unharvested, canes longer than 100 m would occur relatively frequently. Rattan stem does not increase in diameter with age. The seedling first grows in stem diameter and then increases in length, the early establishment growth being responsible for the diameter of the aerial stem. There is, however, some variation in diameter along the stem, the base usually being thicker and then decreasing in diameter upward, the diameter usually attaining a maximum when the rattan crown reaches the forest canopy or reproductive maturity. There may also be variations in diameter between nodes that produce inflorescences and those that do not, the former usually being thinner. All such variations in diameter may affect the quality of the harvested cane.
Most canes are more or less circular in cross section, but in those species of ''Calamus '' which have flagella (see below at climbing organ) the position of the flagellum is marked by a vertical ridge on the internode, the position of the ridge being in line with the axil of the leaf that subtends it. In most species of ''Plectocomiopsis '' Becc. and ''Eremospatha '' the stem is more or less triangular in cross section, thus restricting the uses to which the canes can be put. The growing point of the stem is concealed within the tightly enclosing upper leaf sheaths; it is thus positioned some distance below the apparent stem tip as represented by the tip of the uppermost leaf sheath. In almost all species this vital well protected growing point is edible and is sometimes harvested and sold in markets. Just below the growing point, the stem is usually soft and poorly lignified, and thus cannot be used as cane.
Various studies have been done on the anatomy of rattan stems, starting with Tomlinson (1961). This was followed by two pilot studies, one by Siripatanadilok (1974) on the canes of Java, and Teoh (1978) on the canes of Peninsular Malaysia, aimed at providing a basis for the identification of bare harvested canes. More detailed research has been done by Liese & Weiner (1988) and Weiner & Liese (1990) and Weiner (1992), aimed at studying all genera and species of rattan. Recently there have been numerous anatomical studies of Indian canes (Bhat, 1991, 1992; Bhat & Thulasidas, 1989; Bhat & Varghese, 1991; Bhat et al., 1989, 1990, 1993). All these studies have shown that there are significant anatomical differences among most of the rattan genera, and that species or groups of species are anatomically distinct, and that the quality of cane can be correlated with anatomy to some extent. Generally, good quality cane has an even distribution of vascular bundles throughout the stem, and the ground parenchymatous tissue is uniformly lignified. Cane with little lignification and uneven distribution of vascular bundles is usually poor in quality.
==== Leaf==== Leaves are produced sequentially one at a time; they consist of a tubular sheathing base, the leaf sheath, which arises from the node of the stem. At its upper end, the sheath narrows into the petiole that continues into the rachis or leaflet bearing portion of the leaf. Although a petiole is usually present, it is sometimes very short or absent. In many species the rachis is extended beyond the terminal leaflets into a barbed whip (cirrus) which acts as a climbing organ (see below at ''climbing organ''). The leaf sheath develops from a soft meristematic (i.e. growing) area at its base; thus, the upper part of the sheath matures before its base. Only 1/4 1/3 of the length of the sheath is exposed beyond the shelter of the preceding (i.e. older) leaf. This length of exposed sheath is assumed to correspond with the length of the internode of the stem itself, and is usually densely spiny. Spine arrangement is extraordinarily diverse and frequently of diagnostic importance. In a few species, the leaf sheaths lack spines; for example, in some forms of ''Calamus laevigatus'' Mart. and ''C. ornatus'' the sheaths are devoid of spines; these species are not totally spineless the leaf rachis and cirri and flagella are still heavily armed. A wide range of hairs, scales and/or wax may occur between the spines. At the mouth of the sheath (i.e. the tip) where the sheath narrows into the petiole or leaf rachis, there may be a prolongation of the main part of the sheath. Often this prolongation is tubular and encloses the sheath of the subsequent leaf. This is usually referred to as an ocrea. Sometimes the ocrea is split and the margins rolled. It may be leathery or papery in texture. All species of the genus ''Korthalsia'' bear ocreas, and in some species provide a home for ants. In ''Pogonotium'' J. Dransf. the prolongation consists of two lobes, one on each side of the petiole, referred to as auricles. In many rattans there is a marked swelling on the leaf sheath just below the petiole or leaf rachis, known as the knee. It is only present in climbing members of the genera ''Calamus'', ''Ceratolobus'' Bl., ''Calospatha'' Becc., ''Daemonorops'' Bl. and ''Pogonotium''; in acaulescent members of these genera it is absent.
The petiole is variable in length; it is usually much longer in juvenile than in mature leaves, and, as indicated above, it may be absent altogether. The petiole is often characteristically armed with spines. In some species, there may be neat rows of very long, slender but tough spines on either side of the petiole that appear to function as organs for trapping litter from the forest canopy.
The leaf rachis is defined as the part of the leaf axis which bears the leaflets. Frequently it bears reflexed grapnel like spines on the lower surface and these contribute to the climbing process by locking onto support.
There are two whip like organs associated with climbing in rattans, superficially very similar, but not homologous. Climbing organs usually develop only when the aerial stem begins to develop. The cirrus is an extension of the leaf rachis beyond the terminal leaflets, while the flagellum is a sterile inflorescence borne on the leaf sheath near the knee. Both are whip like and bear groups of short reflexed spines. In a cirrus the spines are borne directly on the extension of the leaf rachis; in the flagellum an axis is covered with very tightly sheathing bracts that bear spines. Flagella are found only in the genus ''Calamus'' but not all species of ''Calamus'' have flagella many, including the best commercial species, are cirrate. Usually, flagella and cirri are mutually exclusive, but in a few species of Calamus (e.g. C. semoi Becc.) there may be short flagella as well as well developed cirri. In all Asiatic rattan genera the cirrus develops as a extension of the rachis beyond the terminal leaflets. In the African genera ''Laccosperma'', ''Oncocalamus'' (G. Mann & H. Wendl.) G. Mann & H. Wendl. and ''Eremospatha'' there is a clearly defined cirrus bearing very large paired reflexed spines on either side, and also reflexed grapnel like spines on the undersurface. The paired spines are in fact modified leaflets (known as acanthophylls). The reflexed grapnel spines serve to anchor the whips to potential support trees when they come in contact and further movement tends to strengthen the attachment.Species of ''Calamus'' which bear flagella have internodes which are uneven in cross section; this is due to the adnation (joining) of the base of the flagellum to the surface of the internode above the leaf which subtends it (Fisher & Dransfield, 1977). This means that, even though it may otherwise have a good internal structure, the cane is marred by the uneven cross section. Canes such as those of ''Calamus ornatus'' are usually decorticated to remove the irregularities before they are used. Not all rattans have cirri or flagella. Members of the genera ''Pogonotium'', ''Retispatha'' J. Dransf. and ''Calospatha'' lack climbing whips but climb weakly in the forest with the aid of the reflexed spines on the lower surface of the leaf rachis. ==== Inflorescence and flower====
Inflorescences are produced singly at the node, borne in the leaf axil, and usually the lower part of the axis of the inflorescence is joined to the internode, and also to the leaf sheath of the following leaf (Fisher & Dransfield, 1977). The result of the "adnation" is that the internode of the cane above the leaf which subtends the inflorescence will be marked by a ridge representing the vascular supply to the inflorescence.
Inflorescences vary greatly in size and overall structure, and inflorescence structure offers the basis for separating the genera. Details of the inflorescences and their taxonomic significance may be found in Dransfield (1979, 1984) and Uhl & Dransfield (1987) (Section 1.2.2).
==== Fruit ==== The fruits of all rattans are covered with vertical rows of overlapping reflexed scales. Beneath the scales lies the rest of the pericarp. In ''Korthalsia, Laccosperma, Eremospatha'' and ''Oncocalamus'' the mesocarp is thick and fleshy at maturity and the seed coat is dry. In all other genera, the pericarp is thin and dry at maturity, and the seed is covered with a fleshy outer layer, the sarcotesta. Fruit maturity is usually indicated by a slight change of colour of the scales. There is usually only one seed in each fruit but some rattans may regularly have up to three seeds. Within the integuments lies the endosperm which can be variously shaped. The endosperm is homogeneous or ruminate and the embryo lies in a shallow pit basally or laterally. ==== Seedling====
Germination of rattan seeds is adjacent ligular (Uhl & Dransfield, 1987). The first sign of germination is the emergence of a short plug from the embryo pit. From this emerge roots and then an irregular swelling, out of which emerges the shoot. The first foliage organ to emerge from the plug is a small, bladeless structure. The first leaf which bears a blade (eophyll) is usually the next foliar organ to emerge. The shape of the eophyll and the number of leaflets it bears vary from species to species and are of importance in identifying rattans at the seedling stage.
Despite their importance and the recent upsurge of interest in the rattan resource, the rattan flora of much of the rattan growing areas of South East Asia remains poorly known. Some areas are now provided with taxonomic guides, e.g. Peninsular Malaysia (Dransfield, 1979), Sabah (Dransfield, 1984b), Sarawak (Dransfield, 1992) and Sri Lanka (de Zoysa). Introductory guides are available for Papua New Guinea (Johns & Taurereko, 1989a, 1989b; Johns & Zibe, 1989) but a complete taxonomic account of the rattans of the whole island of New Guinea will require much further taxonomic research. A guide to the rattans of India has recently been published (Basu, 1992). Although there has been recent rattan taxonomic survey work in Indonesia, a taxonomic guide will require a great deal more inventory and herbarium work. Rattans of Thailand have been studied by Vongkaluang and Dransfield but an identification manual has yet to be completed. Wei and Pei have both been active in working on the taxonomy of Chinese rattans. Fernando, Lapis and Madulid have worked on the rattans of the Philippines and the rattan flora is now relatively well known there.
Taxonomic inventory work provides an essential base for developing rattan, both as wild crop and in plantation. As there are so many species it is important that species delimitation is well understood. It is essential that the economically important species can be distinguished by their fruits and seedlings as well as at maturity, as there are many instances where seedlings of commercially unimportant species may at first sight be closely similar to those of the best species. Among the six hundred or so species there may well be species of excellent quality and great silvicultural potential which remain taxonomically unknown, particularly in the Moluccas and New Guinea.
With so many species and complex synonymy, there are bound to be many nomenclatural problems. As the taxonomy of the rattans becomes better known, name changes will be inevitable (Dransfield, 1985). In order to catalogue the large number of names, a comprehensive nomenclatural data base of rattans is being developed at the Royal Botanic Gardens Kew.
==== Vegetative growth ====
Most rattans growing naturally produce abundant seedlings, but high mortality, presumably through competition for light, water and nutrients, and through predation, leads to only a few seedlings attaining maturity. For high climbing rattans, earlier stem production from the rosette stage and greater production of stems in a clump are initiated by exposure to adequate light; light also enhances stem elongation (Manokaran, 1985). Stem elongation is continuous but variable from period to period.
Whereas there is no published information on the growth rates of rattans growing in the wild, such information is available for commercial species undergoing silvicultural trails. Some information is provided in Table 4.
==== Flowering and fruiting==== Rattans display two main modes of flowering. In one (hapaxanthy), a period of vegetative growth is followed by the simultaneous production of inflorescences from the axils of the uppermost leaves. Flowering (in males) and fruiting is followed by the death of the stem which is usually replaced by sucker shoots. In the other flowering mode (pleonanthy), inflorescences are produced continually after a period of juvenile growth, and flowering and fruiting do not result in the death of the stem. All species of ''Korthalsia, Plectocomia'' Mart., ''Plectocomiopsis, Myrialepis, Laccosperma'' and ''Oncocalamus'' and a few species of Daemonorops are hapaxanthic; all other rattans are pleonanthic. The significance of the different methods of flowering is discussed in Dransfield (1978).
Information on time and periodicity of flowering, age at first flowering, fruit production and fruit maturation period have all been reviewed by Manokaran (1985).
The large number of rattan species and their wide geographical range is matched by great ecological diversity; consequently, generalizations concerning the ecology of rattans frequently need to be qualified and it is imprudent to draw inferences from observations which do not have a firm taxonomic base.
Crude ecological preferences for rattan species have been obtained from observations made during taxonomic inventory work. They are summarized for Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah and Sarawak in Dransfield (1979, 1984, 1992). Such broad ecological summaries are invaluable as a basis for establishing cultivation procedures, even though they are not based on detailed ecological experimentation. A major gap in the knowledge of the ecology of rattans is an understanding of the population dynamics (demography); such knowledge is a prerequisite for developing strategies for sustainable rattan harvesting.
The restriction of rattan species to different climatic zones suggests that these species may have precise climatic requirements. At the extreme north of the range of rattans, it is possible that they may occasionally be subjected to temperatures below O°C. In altitudinal range they occur from sea level up to 3000 m, the highest altitude record being held by ''Calamus gibbsianus '' Becc. at 3000 m on Mount Kinabalu, Sabah. There are usually differences in the rattan flora at different altitudes. Most rattans are vigorous climbers. Species such as ''Calamus manan '' and ''C. ornatus'', which grow in primary forest, require light gaps for further growth and development. Those growing in secondary or disturbed forests such as ''Plectocomiopsis geminiflora '' (Griff.) Becc. and ''Myrialepis paradoxa '' (Kurz) J. Dransf. receive ample light for much of their lifespan. These species appear to need very high light intensities for maximum growth. Certain rattan species slowly grow to maturity in shade in the forest undergrowth. These include non climbing short stemmed species such as ''Daemonorops calicarpa '' (Griff.) Mart. and also climbers such as ''D. didymophylla '' Becc. and ''D. collarifera '' Becc. It has been demonstrated that adequate light is an important factor for enhanced growth in ''C. caesius '' and ''C. scipionum'', and has been observed to be so in ''C. manan'', ''C. trachycoleus'', ''C. tumidus '' Furt. and other commercial species. Despite the importance of light, however, seedlings of ''C. scipionum'', ''C. caesius '' and ''C. manan '' cannot withstand full sunlight throughout the day because the leaves will become scorched and the plants appear unhealthy. This response may be true for most climbing rattan species.
In the forest there may be a wealth of different species of rattan growing sympatrically, occupying different niches, from dense undergrowth to large light gaps formed by the fall of large trees. There is a wide range of different light regimes in the forest and there appears to be a corresponding range of rattans adapted to different light regimes (Dransfield, 1979). At one extreme are rattan species adapted to grow in the low light regimes of the forest undergrowth; at the other extreme are species adapted to the high light regimes of major gaps and land slips. The single most significant ecological factor affecting the growth of commercially important rattan species in plantation is light; unless sufficient light reaches the rattan plant, it may remain on the forest floor, stunted and in a state of perpetual juvenility.
Within the natural distribution range of rattans, rattan species can be found in most forest types and on most soils and rock types. Mangrove, however, is generally devoid of rattans except on the landward fringe. Some species of rattan are restricted to forest on certain rock or soil types. For example, limestone and ultramafic rock carry distinctive rattan floras.
There is a range of rattans adapted to different soil moisture regimes from swamps to dry ridge tops. In cultivation, all species tested so far in trials have performed best in soils which are not subjected to severe drying out, but few rattans can withstand permanent waterlogging or prolonged flooding. For example, although ''C. trachycoleus '' is adapted to seasonally severely flooded habitats, it also grows quite well on higher and drier ground, provided total annual rainfall is as high as in its natural habitat.
The water and light requirements for the growth of some species of rattans have been amply demonstrated and reviewed by Manokaran (1985).
Despite being well protected by the tightly tubular sheaths that are themselves usually fiercely armed, the rattan growing point is not infrequently attacked by herbivores. Such attacks usually result in the death of the growing point and hence of the whole stem. The animals involved include pigs (when the rattan is accessible at ground level), rats and squirrels and, perhaps most destructive, elephants.
Animals seem to be the main agents of dispersal in rattans. The fleshy layer in the fruit wall or the sarcotesta appears to be attractive to birds and mammals. Fruit may be ingested whole or sucked and spat out. Sometimes the first signs of fruiting are twisted broken rachillae with fruit remains on the forest floor, presumably the work of apes or monkeys.
Rattan has been cultivated at three scales: plantation scale for commercial use, village scale for domestic use and as a cash crop, and experimentally in small plots. Cultivation in botanic gardens is not reported here.
==== Indonesia==== The first and most successful rattan plantations are those that were established in the areas around Barito, Kapuas and Kaharjan in Kalimantan about the year 1850 (van Tuil, 1929). Christian missionaries are said to have encouraged the planting of the two small diameter clustering species ''Calamus caesius'' and ''C. trachycoleus'' by villagers on smallholdings. Since then, the area of the smallholdings along the alluvial flats of the Barito River and its tributaries in Central and South Kalimantan provinces has increased to 15 000 ha, mainly planted with ''C. trachycoleus''. By the latter part of the 1980s these village level plantations were contributing about 10% of Indonesia's raw rattan supplies. In East Kalimantan province, shifting cultivators have, for a long time, planted ''C. caesius'' in forest land left fallow after clearance and production of food crops (Weinstock, 1983). Within a period of up to 15 years, the rattan is harvested for sale and the land cleared again for food crop production. Cultivation trials of a few commercial species including ''C. manan'' were begun in the 1980s, mainly in Java. From 1988 1993 the state forestry corporations have planted several thousand ha mainly with ''C. caesius'', and to a small extent ''C. trachycoleus'', in both Java and East Kalimantan. ==== Malaysia ====
The earliest experimental planting of rattan in Peninsular Malaysiawas undertaken in 1960 by the Forest Department of Selangor when ''C. manan'' was planted in small plots in the Ulu Langat Forest Reserve (Manokaran, 1977) and in Sungei Buluh Forest Reserve (Johari Bin Baharudin & Che'Aziz Bin Ali, 1982). A cultivation trial was later initiated in 1972 in Pahang. Beginning in 1975, experimental cultivation of ''C. scipionum'' and ''C. caesius'' was undertaken by the Forest Research Institute of Malaysia (FRIM) (Manokaran, 1985). This institute undertook trials with ''C. manan'' beginning in 1978 (Nur Supardi & Wan Razali Mohd, 1989) and ''C. manan'' was also interplanted with rubber trees (Salleh & Aminuddin, 1986). C. trachycoleus, which is endemic to Kalimantan (Indonesia), has also been planted in trials by FRIM in recent years. The forest departments of some states in Peninsular Malaysia have also established rattan trial plots in recent years. During this period, a ''C. caesius'' plantation of a few hundred ha was established in Selangor. In all, over 1100 ha have been planted with rattan in Peninsular Malaysia.
The first commercial rattan plantation was developed over 4 years by the Sabah Forestry Development Authority (SAFODA) beginning in 1980 1981 in the Sandakan District. The 4000 ha plantation in logged forest is subject to severe annual flooding and consists of 70% C. trachycoleus and 30% C. caesius. Subsequently, a total of about 3000 ha of logged forest, abandoned rubber plantations and Acacia mangium Willd. plantations in various parts of Sabah have been planted with C. manan, C. caesius and C. merrillii Becc. by SAFODA. A further 2000 ha or more in Lahad Datu and Sandakan districts in Sabah have been planted with C. manan and C. caesius by two private companies in recent years. In Sarawak, two experimental plantings of C. optimus were carried out in small plots in 1982 1983. In 1989 about 100 ha were planted with rattan. In 1990 a private company began planting on a large scale in Ulu Bintulu, Sarawak, using C. caesius, C. trachycoleus, C. optimus and C. manan.
