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Created page with "{{PROSEAUpperbar}} {{DISPLAYTITLE:''Vitex'' (PROSEA)}} <big>''Vitex'' L.</big> __NOTOC__ :Protologue: Sp. pl. 2: 638 ("938"; 1753); Gen. pl. ed. 5: 285 (1754). :Family:..."
{{PROSEAUpperbar}}
{{DISPLAYTITLE:''Vitex'' (PROSEA)}}
<big>''[[Vitex]]'' L.</big>
__NOTOC__
:Protologue: Sp. pl. 2: 638 ("938"; 1753); Gen. pl. ed. 5: 285 (1754).
:Family: Verbenaceae
:Chromosome number: ''x''= 6, 8;''V. negundo'': 2''n''= 24, 26, 32, 34,''V. trifolia'': 2''n''= 26, 32, 34
== Major species ==
''Vitex negundo'' L., ''V. trifolia'' L.
== Vernacular names ==
*Vitex (En)
*Indonesia: legundi (general)
*Malaysia: laggundi (Peninsular), leban (Peninsular, Sarawak), kulim papa (Sabah)
*Papua New Guinea: garamut
*Philippines: lagundi. Burma (Myanmar): kyetyo
*Laos: 'sa 'khang<sup>1</sup>, tin nok
*Thailand: tinnok
*Vietnam: bình linh.
== Origin and geographic distribution ==
''Vitex'' comprises about 150 species and occurs throughout the tropics and subtropics with a few species extending to temperate regions. About 30 species occur in the Malesian region. The most important medicinal species, ''V. negundo'' and ''V. trifolia'' , are widely cultivated not only for their medicinal properties but also as ornamental and hedge plants, and have sometimes naturalized.
== Uses ==
The bark, leaves, flowers, fruits or roots of various ''Vitex'' species are used as a general tonic, anthelmintic and in the treatment of gastro-intestinal disorders. The therapeutical applications of ''V. negundo'' and ''V. trifolia'' are very similar, although in various countries different parts of the plant are used for the same ailments. General applications are as an anodyne, febrifuge, expectorant and diuretic. A poultice of the leaves is applied in rheumatic pains, inflammations and sprains. An infusion of the leaves is used in the treatment of dermatitis and eczema. The leaves are traditionally placed between books and clothes as well as in rice stores to ward off insects. ''V. altissima'' L.f., ''V. parviflora'' A.L. Juss. and ''V. pinnata'' L. are also used in traditional medicine in South-East Asia but their primary use is for their timber. In the Philippines ''V. negundo'' is applied in veterinary medicine to treat internal parasites.
== Production and international trade ==
In the Philippines ''V. negundo'' is grown as one of 3 major species on government plantations totalling 3 ha, with an annual yield of 600 kg of powdered drugs. Private plantations have been established alongside these projects.
== Properties ==
In experiments on cat trachea leaf extracts of ''V. negundo'' showed bronchial-relaxing properties. The active constituents are probably the flavonoids casticin, chrysoplenol D, luteolin and isoorientin, and p-hydroxybenzoic acid.
A double-blind placebo-controlled trial was carried out to investigate the effects of lagundi ( ''V. negundo'' ) tablets in the control of non-bacterial cough in children: the clinical response was assessed subjectively and objectively and the pulmonary function was also measured. It was found that the ''V. negundo'' tablets significantly improved the subjective assessments of frequency of cough and colour of sputum in children older than 7 years. In younger children, they were no better than the placebo in terms of the subjective clinical parameters used. No side-effects were reported and the tablet was acceptable in its taste and smell.
An ethanol extract (50%) of ''V. trifolia'' shows antispasmodic and antihistamine properties. The essential oil contains several terpenes, including cineol, terpineol and α-pinene.
An ethanol extract and a cold aqueous infusion of leaves of ''V. leucoxylon'' L.f., an Indian species, were evaluated in a battery of tests to define its activity profile. The cold aqueous solution depressed SMA, antagonized d-amphetamine stereotypy and oxotremorine tremors, shortened the duration of mice immobility in a behavioural "despair" test and lowered serum total cholesterol level. The ethanol extract showed significant inhibition of carrageenin-induced paw oedema and granulation tissue formation in rats. Suppression of acetic acid writhing was observed with both the ethanol extract and the aqueous solution. The LD<sub>50</sub>value of the ethanol extract was over 3000 mg/kg (intraperitoneal) and that of the aqueous solution 800-1200 mg/kg.
The antifungal properties of leaf extracts of ''V. negundo'' have been confirmed experimentally both in vitro and in vivo. Antiviral properties against several viral diseases in rice have also been experimentally confirmed.
The ability of the flavonoid-rich fraction (5,7,3'-trihydroxy,6,8,4'- trimethoxy flavones) of ''V. negundo'' seeds to antagonize the androgen action of exogenous testosterone propionate on the male reproductive system has been confirmed in experiments with castrated prepubertal and intact adult dogs. Similar effects were observed in experiments with male rats. An alcohol extract from ''V. negundo'' seeds obtained by cold maceration was found effective as a hepatoprotective against liver damage induced by carbon tetrachloride.
A crude drug extract of ''V. trifolia'' leaves mediated a significant increase in lifespan in mice bearing sarcoma 180 cells, indicating potential antitumour activity. Similarly, expressed leaf juice from ''V. negundo'' showed antitumour activity in mice. The incidence of skin tumours initiated by dimethylbenzanthracene and promoted by croton oil was reduced appreciably.
Ecdysteroids are found in the bark of several ''Vitex'' species, e.g. ''V. glabrata'' and ''V. pinnata'' . The bark of these species is used as an anthelmintic and a remedy for gastro-intestinal disorders.
Leaf extracts of ''V. negundo'' show promise as a pesticide for integrated pest management. The insecticidal properties include effects on ''Culex'' and ''Anopheles'' , well-known vectors of malaria. Furthermore, dried and pulverized leaves or leaf extracts can be successfully applied in pest management during storage of potatoes, cereals and pulses. Oils from the leaves of ''V. negundo'' and ''V. trifolia'' show considerable mosquito repellent activity. The active principle in the leaves of ''V. trifolia'' has been identified as rotundinal, a cycloterpene aldehyde.
== Description ==
Evergreen or deciduous shrubs or small to medium-sized trees, sometimes large, up to 45 m tall; bole crooked to straight, up to 125(-200) cm in diameter, usually without buttresses but sometimes with distinct buttresses, often deeply fluted; bark surface rather smooth to shallowly fissured or flaky, pale grey to pale yellowish-brown, inner bark pale yellow to bright orange; crown often spreading. Leaves opposite or in whorls of 3, palmately compound with 3-7(-9) leaflets, rarely reduced to 1 leaflet, without stipules; leaflets entire, dentate or lobed. Inflorescence terminal or axillary, cymose, the cymes sessile or pedunculate, solitary or arranged in racemes, thyrses or panicles. Flowers bisexual; calyx campanulate to tubular, 5-lobed to truncate; corolla usually with a short tube, 2-lipped, upper lip 2-fid, lower lip 3-fid, often pubescent outside, white to blue or violet or rarely yellowish; stamens 4, didynamous, inserted on the corolla tube, exserted; ovary superior, usually first 2-locular and later 4-locular with a single ovule in each cell, style 1, filiform, stigma bifid. Fruit a juicy or dry drupe, seated on the often enlarged calyx, generally with one 4-seeded pyrene. Seeds obovoid or oblong, without endosperm. Seedling with epigeal germination; cotyledons emergent, leafy; hypocotyl elongated; leaves opposite, conduplicate, first ones simple and with toothed margins.
== Growth and development ==
Young ''Vitex'' trees grow rather slowly. ''V. glabrata'' trees showed a mean annual diameter increment of 0.8 cm in Burma (Myanmar), and ''V. quinata'' trees 1.2 cm in Java. One-year-old seedlings of the latter may reach 2 m in height in Java, and the mean annual height increment for the first 15 years after planting is 1 m. Usually flowering is during the rainy season and fruits ripen within a few months. In Java, trees of ''V. quinata'' do not start flowering until 11-12 years old. In the Philippines, ''V. negundo'' and ''V. trifolia'' flower year-round. In India, ''V. negundo'' flowers twice a year, once in July-November and again in March-May. Its flowers open from 8.30-13.00 h and are visited by various insects, some of which puncture the unopened buds to collect nectar. The flowers last for only 24 hours.
== Other botanical information ==
''Vitex'' is generally placed in the subfamily ''Viticoideae'' and is probably most closely related to ''Premna'' which has simple leaves and very small flowers. ''Vitex'' might be confused with ''Teijsmanniodendron'' which differs, however, in the swollen apex of petioles and petiolules and the 2-celled ovary and fruit. Numerous subspecific taxa that are mainly varieties and formae have been described within many species of ''Vitex'' , but the usefulness of distinguishing them is questionable. ''V. negundo'' closely resembles ''V. trifolia'' but can be distinguished by its long-petioluled median leaflet and 3-5 leaflets.
== Ecology ==
Most ''Vitex'' occur in comparatively dry regions with a prominent dry season, often in lowland deciduous forest on rocky ground, on grassy slopes and on dry limestone soils, but sometimes also in littoral rain forest or in hill forest, occasionally up to 2000 m altitude.
== Propagation and planting ==
''Vitex'' can be propagated by seed, but germination of ''V. trifolia'' seed is reported to be difficult. ''V. quinata'' has 7800-8200 dry fruits per kg. ''V. negundo'' can be propagated by cuttings 20 cm long which had 60% rooting success without the use of growth hormones; soaking the cuttings in naphthalene acetic acid at a concentration of 0.1-1.0 mg/l increased rooting to almost 100%. In the Philippines lagundi ( ''V. negundo'' ) for medicinal purposes is planted at a spacing of 2 m × 4 m. When nursery stock is transplanted, 25 g of ammonium sulphate is applied directly to the planting hole. In India, ''V. negundo'' has been planted at an experimental scale for the production of firewood with 25 000 plants/ha. Planting should be done early in the rainy season. Generally ''V. quinata'' is planted at 1 m × 3 m in Java, occasionally at 1 m × 1-2 m on very fertile soils.
== In vitro production of active compounds ==
Tissue culture of ''V. negundo'' in the Philippines produced callus with a high content of therapeutic substances, in particular fats.
== Husbandry ==
''V. negundo'' readily produces root suckers and for maximum biomass production can be managed as coppice. Its twigs are usually not browsed. It grows best in full sun and the content of therapeutically active essential oils is highest under these circumstances. Optimum growth is achieved by applying NPK 14-14-14 at a dosage of 20 g/plant.
== Diseases and pests ==
In the Philippines, circular leaf spot caused by ''Corynespora'' sp. severely damages ''V. negundo'' plantations locally, especially in the rainy season. ''Cercospora'' leaf spot and leaf blight caused by an unknown agent have also been observed. Thrips, lepidopterous defoliators and leaffolders are economically important pests of ''V. negundo'' . In Java, ''Cromerus kalshoveni'' , a top-sucking insect, has been observed on ''V. quinata'' .
== Harvesting ==
In the Philippines ''V. negundo'' is harvested 3-9 times a year. Leaves of flowering plants contain significantly more essential oil than those of non-flowering plants. Only mature and healthy leaves are harvested; diseased and senescent ones are discarded.
== Yield ==
Steam distillation of ''V. negundo'' leaves gave a yield of 0.4% of essential oil, principally α-pinene, camphene, caryophyllene and citral.
== Handling after harvest ==
The leaves of ''V. negundo'' may be dried and pulverized and as such applied in tablets and capsules, whereas the leaf extract is used in syrups. The fruits can also be dried and stored for longer periods. In the Philippines harvested leaves are air-dried and stirred constantly in containers with screened bottoms. The desired moisture content of 10% is attained within 3-4 days during the dry season and within 2 weeks during the wet season. Storing dried leaves for 2 months in sealed, clear polyethylene bags under ambient conditions does not significantly reduce essential oil content.
== Genetic resources and breeding ==
Most ''Vitex'' species do not seem to be liable to genetic erosion as they are widespread and generally regenerate easily and abundantly after disturbance of the forest. The medicinally important ''V. negundo'' and ''V. trifolia'' are widely planted in hedges and for ornamental purposes. ''V. negundo'' is most probably an outbreeding species.
== Prospects ==
The application of ''V. negundo'' as a general tonic in syrups and tablets deserves further attention. The antitumour activity as observed in vitro seems promising. ''V. negundo'' and ''V. trifolia'' show considerable potential as a botanical pesticide that may be applied both indoors and outdoors.
== Literature ==
* Avadhoot, Y. & Rana, A.C., 1991. Hepatoprotective effect of Vitex negundo against carbon tetrachloride-induced liver damage. Archives of Pharmacological Research 14(1): 96-98.
* Balboa, J.G. & Lim-Sylianco, C.Y., 1995. Effect of some medicinal plants on skin tumor promotion. Philippine Journal of Science 124(2): 203-207.
* Bhargava S.K., 1989. Antiandrogenic effects of a flavonoid-rich fraction of Vitex negundo seeds, a histological and biochemical study in dogs. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 27(3): 327-340.
* Dayrit, F.M., Lapid, M.R.G., Cagampang, J.V. & Lagurin, L.G., 1987. Phytochemical studies on the leaves of Vitex negundo L. ("lagundi"). I. Investigations of the bronchial relaxing constituents. Philippine Journal of Science 116(4): 403-410.
* Lam, H.J., 1919. The Verbenaceae of the Malayan Archipelago. M. de Waal, Groningen, the Netherlands. pp. 164-214.
* Makwana, H.G., Ravishankar, B., Shukla, V.J., Nair, R.B., Vijayan, N.P., Sasikala, C.K., Saraswathy, V.N. & Bhatt, S.V., 1994. General pharmacology of Vitex leucoxylon Linn leaves. Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology 38(2): 95-100.
* Moldenke, H.N. & Moldenke, A.L., 1983. Verbenaceae. In: Dassanayake, M.D. & Fosberg, F.R. (Editors): A revised handbook to the flora of Ceylon. Amerind Publishing Co., New Delhi, India. pp. 348-388.
* Suksamrarn, A. & Sommechai, C., 1993. Ecdysteroids from Vitex pinnata. Phytochemistry 32(2): 303-306.
* Sunarno, B., Lemmens, R.H.M.J. & Ani binti Sulaiman, 1995. Vitex L. In: Lemmens, R.H.M.J., Soerianegara, I. & Wong, W.C. (Editors): Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 5(2). Timber trees: Minor commercial timbers. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, the Netherlands. pp. 502-509.
* Sundarrao, K., Burrows, I., Kuduk, M., Yi, Y.D., Chung, M.H., Suh, N.J. & Chang, I.M., 1993. Preliminary screening of antibacterial and antitumor activities of Papua New Guinean native medicinal plants. International Journal of Pharmacognosy 31(1): 3-6.
== Authors ==
E.P. Capareda
[[Category:Medicinal plants (PROSEA)]]
[[Category:PROSEA]]
{{DISPLAYTITLE:''Vitex'' (PROSEA)}}
<big>''[[Vitex]]'' L.</big>
__NOTOC__
:Protologue: Sp. pl. 2: 638 ("938"; 1753); Gen. pl. ed. 5: 285 (1754).
:Family: Verbenaceae
:Chromosome number: ''x''= 6, 8;''V. negundo'': 2''n''= 24, 26, 32, 34,''V. trifolia'': 2''n''= 26, 32, 34
== Major species ==
''Vitex negundo'' L., ''V. trifolia'' L.
== Vernacular names ==
*Vitex (En)
*Indonesia: legundi (general)
*Malaysia: laggundi (Peninsular), leban (Peninsular, Sarawak), kulim papa (Sabah)
*Papua New Guinea: garamut
*Philippines: lagundi. Burma (Myanmar): kyetyo
*Laos: 'sa 'khang<sup>1</sup>, tin nok
*Thailand: tinnok
*Vietnam: bình linh.
== Origin and geographic distribution ==
''Vitex'' comprises about 150 species and occurs throughout the tropics and subtropics with a few species extending to temperate regions. About 30 species occur in the Malesian region. The most important medicinal species, ''V. negundo'' and ''V. trifolia'' , are widely cultivated not only for their medicinal properties but also as ornamental and hedge plants, and have sometimes naturalized.
== Uses ==
The bark, leaves, flowers, fruits or roots of various ''Vitex'' species are used as a general tonic, anthelmintic and in the treatment of gastro-intestinal disorders. The therapeutical applications of ''V. negundo'' and ''V. trifolia'' are very similar, although in various countries different parts of the plant are used for the same ailments. General applications are as an anodyne, febrifuge, expectorant and diuretic. A poultice of the leaves is applied in rheumatic pains, inflammations and sprains. An infusion of the leaves is used in the treatment of dermatitis and eczema. The leaves are traditionally placed between books and clothes as well as in rice stores to ward off insects. ''V. altissima'' L.f., ''V. parviflora'' A.L. Juss. and ''V. pinnata'' L. are also used in traditional medicine in South-East Asia but their primary use is for their timber. In the Philippines ''V. negundo'' is applied in veterinary medicine to treat internal parasites.
== Production and international trade ==
In the Philippines ''V. negundo'' is grown as one of 3 major species on government plantations totalling 3 ha, with an annual yield of 600 kg of powdered drugs. Private plantations have been established alongside these projects.
== Properties ==
In experiments on cat trachea leaf extracts of ''V. negundo'' showed bronchial-relaxing properties. The active constituents are probably the flavonoids casticin, chrysoplenol D, luteolin and isoorientin, and p-hydroxybenzoic acid.
A double-blind placebo-controlled trial was carried out to investigate the effects of lagundi ( ''V. negundo'' ) tablets in the control of non-bacterial cough in children: the clinical response was assessed subjectively and objectively and the pulmonary function was also measured. It was found that the ''V. negundo'' tablets significantly improved the subjective assessments of frequency of cough and colour of sputum in children older than 7 years. In younger children, they were no better than the placebo in terms of the subjective clinical parameters used. No side-effects were reported and the tablet was acceptable in its taste and smell.
An ethanol extract (50%) of ''V. trifolia'' shows antispasmodic and antihistamine properties. The essential oil contains several terpenes, including cineol, terpineol and α-pinene.
An ethanol extract and a cold aqueous infusion of leaves of ''V. leucoxylon'' L.f., an Indian species, were evaluated in a battery of tests to define its activity profile. The cold aqueous solution depressed SMA, antagonized d-amphetamine stereotypy and oxotremorine tremors, shortened the duration of mice immobility in a behavioural "despair" test and lowered serum total cholesterol level. The ethanol extract showed significant inhibition of carrageenin-induced paw oedema and granulation tissue formation in rats. Suppression of acetic acid writhing was observed with both the ethanol extract and the aqueous solution. The LD<sub>50</sub>value of the ethanol extract was over 3000 mg/kg (intraperitoneal) and that of the aqueous solution 800-1200 mg/kg.
The antifungal properties of leaf extracts of ''V. negundo'' have been confirmed experimentally both in vitro and in vivo. Antiviral properties against several viral diseases in rice have also been experimentally confirmed.
The ability of the flavonoid-rich fraction (5,7,3'-trihydroxy,6,8,4'- trimethoxy flavones) of ''V. negundo'' seeds to antagonize the androgen action of exogenous testosterone propionate on the male reproductive system has been confirmed in experiments with castrated prepubertal and intact adult dogs. Similar effects were observed in experiments with male rats. An alcohol extract from ''V. negundo'' seeds obtained by cold maceration was found effective as a hepatoprotective against liver damage induced by carbon tetrachloride.
A crude drug extract of ''V. trifolia'' leaves mediated a significant increase in lifespan in mice bearing sarcoma 180 cells, indicating potential antitumour activity. Similarly, expressed leaf juice from ''V. negundo'' showed antitumour activity in mice. The incidence of skin tumours initiated by dimethylbenzanthracene and promoted by croton oil was reduced appreciably.
Ecdysteroids are found in the bark of several ''Vitex'' species, e.g. ''V. glabrata'' and ''V. pinnata'' . The bark of these species is used as an anthelmintic and a remedy for gastro-intestinal disorders.
Leaf extracts of ''V. negundo'' show promise as a pesticide for integrated pest management. The insecticidal properties include effects on ''Culex'' and ''Anopheles'' , well-known vectors of malaria. Furthermore, dried and pulverized leaves or leaf extracts can be successfully applied in pest management during storage of potatoes, cereals and pulses. Oils from the leaves of ''V. negundo'' and ''V. trifolia'' show considerable mosquito repellent activity. The active principle in the leaves of ''V. trifolia'' has been identified as rotundinal, a cycloterpene aldehyde.
== Description ==
Evergreen or deciduous shrubs or small to medium-sized trees, sometimes large, up to 45 m tall; bole crooked to straight, up to 125(-200) cm in diameter, usually without buttresses but sometimes with distinct buttresses, often deeply fluted; bark surface rather smooth to shallowly fissured or flaky, pale grey to pale yellowish-brown, inner bark pale yellow to bright orange; crown often spreading. Leaves opposite or in whorls of 3, palmately compound with 3-7(-9) leaflets, rarely reduced to 1 leaflet, without stipules; leaflets entire, dentate or lobed. Inflorescence terminal or axillary, cymose, the cymes sessile or pedunculate, solitary or arranged in racemes, thyrses or panicles. Flowers bisexual; calyx campanulate to tubular, 5-lobed to truncate; corolla usually with a short tube, 2-lipped, upper lip 2-fid, lower lip 3-fid, often pubescent outside, white to blue or violet or rarely yellowish; stamens 4, didynamous, inserted on the corolla tube, exserted; ovary superior, usually first 2-locular and later 4-locular with a single ovule in each cell, style 1, filiform, stigma bifid. Fruit a juicy or dry drupe, seated on the often enlarged calyx, generally with one 4-seeded pyrene. Seeds obovoid or oblong, without endosperm. Seedling with epigeal germination; cotyledons emergent, leafy; hypocotyl elongated; leaves opposite, conduplicate, first ones simple and with toothed margins.
== Growth and development ==
Young ''Vitex'' trees grow rather slowly. ''V. glabrata'' trees showed a mean annual diameter increment of 0.8 cm in Burma (Myanmar), and ''V. quinata'' trees 1.2 cm in Java. One-year-old seedlings of the latter may reach 2 m in height in Java, and the mean annual height increment for the first 15 years after planting is 1 m. Usually flowering is during the rainy season and fruits ripen within a few months. In Java, trees of ''V. quinata'' do not start flowering until 11-12 years old. In the Philippines, ''V. negundo'' and ''V. trifolia'' flower year-round. In India, ''V. negundo'' flowers twice a year, once in July-November and again in March-May. Its flowers open from 8.30-13.00 h and are visited by various insects, some of which puncture the unopened buds to collect nectar. The flowers last for only 24 hours.
== Other botanical information ==
''Vitex'' is generally placed in the subfamily ''Viticoideae'' and is probably most closely related to ''Premna'' which has simple leaves and very small flowers. ''Vitex'' might be confused with ''Teijsmanniodendron'' which differs, however, in the swollen apex of petioles and petiolules and the 2-celled ovary and fruit. Numerous subspecific taxa that are mainly varieties and formae have been described within many species of ''Vitex'' , but the usefulness of distinguishing them is questionable. ''V. negundo'' closely resembles ''V. trifolia'' but can be distinguished by its long-petioluled median leaflet and 3-5 leaflets.
== Ecology ==
Most ''Vitex'' occur in comparatively dry regions with a prominent dry season, often in lowland deciduous forest on rocky ground, on grassy slopes and on dry limestone soils, but sometimes also in littoral rain forest or in hill forest, occasionally up to 2000 m altitude.
== Propagation and planting ==
''Vitex'' can be propagated by seed, but germination of ''V. trifolia'' seed is reported to be difficult. ''V. quinata'' has 7800-8200 dry fruits per kg. ''V. negundo'' can be propagated by cuttings 20 cm long which had 60% rooting success without the use of growth hormones; soaking the cuttings in naphthalene acetic acid at a concentration of 0.1-1.0 mg/l increased rooting to almost 100%. In the Philippines lagundi ( ''V. negundo'' ) for medicinal purposes is planted at a spacing of 2 m × 4 m. When nursery stock is transplanted, 25 g of ammonium sulphate is applied directly to the planting hole. In India, ''V. negundo'' has been planted at an experimental scale for the production of firewood with 25 000 plants/ha. Planting should be done early in the rainy season. Generally ''V. quinata'' is planted at 1 m × 3 m in Java, occasionally at 1 m × 1-2 m on very fertile soils.
== In vitro production of active compounds ==
Tissue culture of ''V. negundo'' in the Philippines produced callus with a high content of therapeutic substances, in particular fats.
== Husbandry ==
''V. negundo'' readily produces root suckers and for maximum biomass production can be managed as coppice. Its twigs are usually not browsed. It grows best in full sun and the content of therapeutically active essential oils is highest under these circumstances. Optimum growth is achieved by applying NPK 14-14-14 at a dosage of 20 g/plant.
== Diseases and pests ==
In the Philippines, circular leaf spot caused by ''Corynespora'' sp. severely damages ''V. negundo'' plantations locally, especially in the rainy season. ''Cercospora'' leaf spot and leaf blight caused by an unknown agent have also been observed. Thrips, lepidopterous defoliators and leaffolders are economically important pests of ''V. negundo'' . In Java, ''Cromerus kalshoveni'' , a top-sucking insect, has been observed on ''V. quinata'' .
== Harvesting ==
In the Philippines ''V. negundo'' is harvested 3-9 times a year. Leaves of flowering plants contain significantly more essential oil than those of non-flowering plants. Only mature and healthy leaves are harvested; diseased and senescent ones are discarded.
== Yield ==
Steam distillation of ''V. negundo'' leaves gave a yield of 0.4% of essential oil, principally α-pinene, camphene, caryophyllene and citral.
== Handling after harvest ==
The leaves of ''V. negundo'' may be dried and pulverized and as such applied in tablets and capsules, whereas the leaf extract is used in syrups. The fruits can also be dried and stored for longer periods. In the Philippines harvested leaves are air-dried and stirred constantly in containers with screened bottoms. The desired moisture content of 10% is attained within 3-4 days during the dry season and within 2 weeks during the wet season. Storing dried leaves for 2 months in sealed, clear polyethylene bags under ambient conditions does not significantly reduce essential oil content.
== Genetic resources and breeding ==
Most ''Vitex'' species do not seem to be liable to genetic erosion as they are widespread and generally regenerate easily and abundantly after disturbance of the forest. The medicinally important ''V. negundo'' and ''V. trifolia'' are widely planted in hedges and for ornamental purposes. ''V. negundo'' is most probably an outbreeding species.
== Prospects ==
The application of ''V. negundo'' as a general tonic in syrups and tablets deserves further attention. The antitumour activity as observed in vitro seems promising. ''V. negundo'' and ''V. trifolia'' show considerable potential as a botanical pesticide that may be applied both indoors and outdoors.
== Literature ==
* Avadhoot, Y. & Rana, A.C., 1991. Hepatoprotective effect of Vitex negundo against carbon tetrachloride-induced liver damage. Archives of Pharmacological Research 14(1): 96-98.
* Balboa, J.G. & Lim-Sylianco, C.Y., 1995. Effect of some medicinal plants on skin tumor promotion. Philippine Journal of Science 124(2): 203-207.
* Bhargava S.K., 1989. Antiandrogenic effects of a flavonoid-rich fraction of Vitex negundo seeds, a histological and biochemical study in dogs. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 27(3): 327-340.
* Dayrit, F.M., Lapid, M.R.G., Cagampang, J.V. & Lagurin, L.G., 1987. Phytochemical studies on the leaves of Vitex negundo L. ("lagundi"). I. Investigations of the bronchial relaxing constituents. Philippine Journal of Science 116(4): 403-410.
* Lam, H.J., 1919. The Verbenaceae of the Malayan Archipelago. M. de Waal, Groningen, the Netherlands. pp. 164-214.
* Makwana, H.G., Ravishankar, B., Shukla, V.J., Nair, R.B., Vijayan, N.P., Sasikala, C.K., Saraswathy, V.N. & Bhatt, S.V., 1994. General pharmacology of Vitex leucoxylon Linn leaves. Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology 38(2): 95-100.
* Moldenke, H.N. & Moldenke, A.L., 1983. Verbenaceae. In: Dassanayake, M.D. & Fosberg, F.R. (Editors): A revised handbook to the flora of Ceylon. Amerind Publishing Co., New Delhi, India. pp. 348-388.
* Suksamrarn, A. & Sommechai, C., 1993. Ecdysteroids from Vitex pinnata. Phytochemistry 32(2): 303-306.
* Sunarno, B., Lemmens, R.H.M.J. & Ani binti Sulaiman, 1995. Vitex L. In: Lemmens, R.H.M.J., Soerianegara, I. & Wong, W.C. (Editors): Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 5(2). Timber trees: Minor commercial timbers. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, the Netherlands. pp. 502-509.
* Sundarrao, K., Burrows, I., Kuduk, M., Yi, Y.D., Chung, M.H., Suh, N.J. & Chang, I.M., 1993. Preliminary screening of antibacterial and antitumor activities of Papua New Guinean native medicinal plants. International Journal of Pharmacognosy 31(1): 3-6.
== Authors ==
E.P. Capareda
[[Category:Medicinal plants (PROSEA)]]
[[Category:PROSEA]]
