Quisqualis (PROSEA)
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Introduction |
Quisqualis L.
- Protologue: Sp. pl., ed. 2, 1: 556 (1762).
- Family: Combretaceae
- Chromosome number: x= unknown; Q. conferta: 2n= 26, Q. indica: 2n= 22, 24, 26
Major species
- Quisqualis indica L.
Vernacular names
- Indonesia: udani
- Malaysia: akar dani, selimpas (Peninsular)
- Philippines: niyog-niyogan
- Thailand: lep mue naang
- Vietnam: quả giun.
Origin and geographic distribution
Quisqualis has about 14 species, 6 in tropical and South Africa, and 8 in tropical Asia of which Q. indica is now commonly cultivated throughout the tropics. In Malesia there are 4 species.
Uses
The bitter half-ripe fruits and seeds of Q. indica are widely known as being anthelmintic and are extensively used as such, usually in decoction, particularly to treat ascarids. In large doses they cause nausea, vomiting, hiccough and even unconsciousness. The seed of the dried ripe fruit is used preferably to reduce the incidence of vomiting, but roots (Q. conferta, Q. indica) and decoctions of the leaves (Q. conferta) are also used as a vermifuge. Although the seeds are often applied to stop diarrhoea, an oil extracted from the seed has purgative properties. Leaf juice or seeds, macerated in oil, are applied externally to treat boils, ulcers and parasitic skin infections. Various preparations of the plant are applied both externally and internally for pain relief. In the Philippines, Quisqualis is used as a remedy for coughs, and the fruits and seeds are applied to alleviate nephritis. In Vietnam, the root is used in decoction to treat rheumatism. In Papua New Guinea, plants are eaten daily by men and women as a method of birth control.
Q. indica is widely cultivated as an ornamental climber, planted in hedges. In Indonesia, very young shoots are eaten raw or steamed. In West Africa, the long, flexible stems are used for basketry, fish weir and fish traps.
Production and international trade
The dried fruits of Q. indica can be found in small drug stores and Chinese pharmacies throughout Malesia. Most of the fruits on sale in Malaysia and Thailand are imported from China.
Properties
The seeds of Q. indica contain L-quisqualic acid (= β-(3,5-dioxo-1,2,4-oxodiazolidin-2-yl)-L-alanine or (S)-α-amino-3,5-dioxo-1,2,4-oxodiazolidine-2-propanoic acid), which exhibits marked anthelmintic activities. This active principle somewhat resembles the actions of the anthelmintic α-santonin (e.g. from Artemisia maritima L.); in China, Quisqualis seeds are used as a substitute for α-santonin as drug. In screening tests, parts of the fruit, e.g. the gum isolated from it, have failed to exhibit anthelmintic activity.
Furthermore, quisqualic acid has shown excitatory effects on cultured neurons, and in a variety of animal models (e.g. snails, chicks, mice and rats). It causes various types of limbic seizures and neuronal necrosis. Thus, in neuropharmacology this compound is known as one of the excitatory amino acids (EAAs) and, besides the study of the neurological effects mentioned, is used to identify a specific set of EAA receptors, in the case of quisqualic acid known as quisqualate receptors.
Pharmacological investigation of the chloroform fraction of a hot aqueous water extract of Q. indica showed that this fraction inhibits cyclic AMP phosphodiesterase by about 80%.
Q. indica extracts showed a mild repellent effect to the oviposition of oriental fruit fly (Darcus dorsalis). The aqueous extract of Q. indica showed antifungal properties against Drechslera oryzae through inhibition of germ tube elongation. The extract of the seeds of Q. indica had anticoccidial effect against Eimeria tenella in chicken.
Description
- Woody climbers or occasionally scrambling shrubs.
- Leaves opposite or subopposite, simple, margin entire, with domatia on the lower surface; base of petiole persisting as spines after leaf-fall.
- Flowers in elongated, usually unbranched, terminal or axillary, bracteate spikes, bisexual, actinomorphic or slightly zygomorphic, 5-merous; receptacle (calyx tube) hairy to nearly glabrous, divided into a lower part surrounding the ovary and a tubular upper part terminating in the calyx lobes, upper receptacle caducous, calyx lobes triangular; petals inserted on the receptacle tube and much larger than the calyx lobes; stamens 10, in 2 rows, inserted inside and near the mouth of the upper receptacle, not or scarcely exserted; disk narrowly tubular or absent; ovary inferior, 1-locular with 2-4 ovules, style adnate to the upper receptacle for at least half the length of the latter.
- Fruit a dry pseudocarp, 5-winged or -ridged, dehiscent or indehiscent, 1-seeded.
- Seed without endosperm.
Growth and development
The lianescent stem of Q. indica twines to the left. Plants maintain themselves by root suckers and stooling. The flowers, which open at dusk, are initially white but gradually turn red during the next day. In the meantime the orientation of the flower changes from obliquely upwards or horizontal to pendulous. At night the white flowers are visited by hawk moths, during the day the pink and red flowers are visited by a wide range of pollinators such as solitary bees, honey bees, flies and sunbirds. Each flower lasts 3 days; the largest amount of nectar is present at the morning of the first day. In Vietnam, ripe fruits of Q. indica are available in August and September. Fruiting plants are rare in many localities. The fruits of Quisqualis are buoyant in both fresh water and seawater, and are thus dispersed.
Other botanical information
Quisqualis is closely related to Combretum and the most recent view is that both should be united. Quisqualis was considered distinct from Combretum by having a dehiscent fruit and by the long tubular upper receptacle. These characters proved to be unreliable for the separation of the two genera. Another proposed delimitation based on the insertion of the style in the upper receptacle (adnate to the wall in Quisqualis, free in Combretum) and the length of the stamens (exserted in Combretum, not exserted in Quisqualis) also proved untenable. The junction of the two genera seems obvious, but has not yet been put into practice in literature. The name Combretum has priority over Quisqualis.
Ecology
Q. conferta occurs in margins of primary forest at low altitudes. Q. indica is occasionally found in the same habitat, but more often in more disturbed habitats such as secondary forest, thickets, along streams, and even as a weed along roadsides, on waste places, in rice fields and along railway tracks. It occurs from sea-level up to 300 m altitude, preferably in full sunlight, on a wide range of soils, but preferably on well-drained soils.
Propagation and planting
Q. indica can be propagated by leafless stem cuttings with at least 3 nodes; after 1 month an adequate root system has developed. Cuttings in coarse sand show about 55% rooting success. Good results have also been obtained using the tips of twigs placed in a mist bed after their leaves have been cut in half. Q. indica is also propagated by air layering and root division. Propagation from seed is easy, but fruits and seeds are seldom formed. In the Philippines, Quisqualis is planted at a spacing of 2-3 m × 4 m with 1.5 m high trellises along the rows.
Diseases and pests
A leaf spot disease probably caused by a fungus has been very destructive in the Philippines in both the wet and dry seasons; older lesions are mostly circular and dark with distinct chlorotic halos. Cercospora leaf spot also causes irregular dark brown spots on the upper leaf surface, in which a clear whitish centre develops. In the Philippines, mites, several lepidopterous insects and also scarabaeid beetles have severely infested Q. indica. The bag-worm moth Eumeta crameri has become a serious pest on ornamental plants in Dacca, Bangladesh. In India, larvae of the moth Othreis homaena caused heavy defoliation of Q. indica. The nematode Xiphinema americanum was found infecting Q. indica and was associated with swollen root-tips.
Harvesting
Mature fruits are ready for picking when they have turned golden-yellow.
Handling after harvest
Fruits can be collected half-ripe, when they are still bitter, pulped in water and the liquid can be taken internally as a drug. Mature fruits are air-dried for a month in shallow containers with screened bottoms and stirred constantly to attain a moisture content of less than 10%. Immature fruits should be checked and any containing small holes, which are caused by oviposition of Ephestia sp., must be discarded as these will contaminate all fruits within 6 months after storage. Dried fruits can be stored for up to 1 year, but the effect of storage on the quisqualic acid content is not yet known.
Genetic resources and breeding
No information is available on germplasm collections and breeding programmes.
Prospects
The prospects for Q. indica seeds as an anthelmintic are limited, due to the toxic side-effects of quisqualic acid. The cultivation of Q. indica for its anthelmintic properties is being encouraged in the Philippines. However, it is not yet widely planted, possibly due to its toxic side-effects. Moreover, reports from Thailand state that fruiting is not common. Quisqualic acid is of interest for neuropharmacological applications, but there will be no need for large-scale production.
Literature
- Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, 1969. The Wealth of India: a dictionary of Indian raw materials and industrial products. Raw materials. Vol. 8. Publications and Information Directorate, New Delhi, India. pp. 357-358.
- Eisikowitch, D. & Rotem, R., 1987. Flower orientation and color change in Quisqualis indica and their possible role in pollinator partitioning. Botanical Gazette 148: 175-179.
- Fang, S.D., Xu, R.S. & Gao, Y.S., 1981. Some recent advances in the chemical studies of Chinese herbal medicine. American Journal of Botany 68(2): 300-303.
- Gutierrez, H.C., 1980. An illustrated manual of Philippine materia medica. Vol. 1. National Research Council of the Philippines, Bicutan, Tagig, Metro Manila, the Philippines. pp. 154-156.
- Jongkind, C.C.H., 1991. Novitates gabonenses 6. Some critical observations on Combretum versus Quisqualis (Combretaceae) and description of two new species of Combretum. Bulletin du Muséum Nationale d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, 4e sér., 12, section B, Adansonia: 275-280.
- Kim Byeung Gie, 1995. Anticoccidial effect of herb extracts against Eimeria tenella. Korean Journal of Veterinary Clinical Medicine 12(1): 123-128.
- Kyi Thein et al., 1995. Preliminary screening of medicinal plants for biological activity based on inhibition of cyclic AMP phosphodiesterase. International Journal of Pharmacognosy 33(4): 330-333.
- Lecompte, O., 1969. Combretaceae. In: Aubréville, A. (Editor): Flore du Cambodge, du Laos et du Viêtnam [Flora of Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam]. Vol. 10. Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France. pp. 22-31.
- Quintana, E.G., Saldulez, J.D., Batoon, M.P. & Generalao, M.L., 1982. Agricultural production of selected medicinal plants: propagation to postharvest handling. PCARRD [Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry, and Natural Resources Research and Development] Monitor 1O(4): 8-10.
- Shinazaki, H., Hirate, K. & Ishida, M., 1987. Modification of drug-induced tremor by systematic administration of kainic acid and quisqualic acid in mice. Neuropharmacology 26(1): 9-18.
Selection of species
Authors
- N.O. Aguilar
