Lavandula (PROSEA)
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Introduction |
Lavandula L.
- Protologue: Sp. pl.: 572 (1753); Gen. pl., ed. 5: 249 (1754).
- Family: Labiatae
- Chromosome number: x= 6. L. angustifolia: 2n= 48, 54; L. latifolia: 2n= 50; L. stoechas: 2n= 30
Major species and synonyms
- Lavandula angustifolia Miller, Gard. dict. ed. 8, No 2 (1768), synonyms: L. spica L. (1753, p.p., nomen ambig.), L. officinalis Chaix (1786), L. vera DC. (1815).
- Lavandula latifolia Medikus, Bot. Beobacht. (Mannheim) 1783: 135 (1784), synonyms: L. spica auct., non L.
- Lavandula stoechas L., Sp. pl.: 573 (1753).
- Lavandula × intermedia Emeric ex Loisel., Fl. gall. ed. 2, 2: 19 (1828), synonym: L. × burnati Briquet (1895).
Vernacular names
General:
- Lavender (En).
- Lavande (Fr).
L. angustifolia :
- common lavender, English lavender (En).
- Lavande véritable, lavande vraie, lavande femelle (Fr).
L. latifolia :
- spike lavender (En).
- Aspic, grande lavande, lavande mâle (Fr).
L. stoechas : French lavender, Spanish lavender, Arabian lavender (En). Lavande maritime, lavande stéchas, queirelet (Fr).
L. × intermedia :
- lavandin, Dutch lavender (En).
- Lavandin, lavande bâtarde (Fr).
Origin and geographic distribution
Lavandula comprises about 30 species and occurs naturally from the Canary Islands to India through the Mediterranean region where it has its greatest diversity. L. angustifolia and L. latifolia are found throughout the northern Mediterranean from Portugal to Greece; L. stoechas occurs in the same region and also in northern Africa and the Middle East; L. angustifolia and L. × intermedia are grown commercially for their essential oil in Bulgaria and the Mediterranean, mainly in south-eastern France, Italy, Spain and also in Russia, United Kingdom, Australia and on a small scale in many parts of the world. The 4 taxa are also cultivated worldwide as ornamentals.
Until the beginning of the 20th Century L. angustifolia was only rarely cultivated for the essential oils and was mainly collected from wild stands. The depopulation of southern France during the 19th Century led to a wide and rapid colonization of abandoned fields by L. angustifolia and L. latifolia, especially in places where they were extensively grazed. This expansion led first to intensified collection of lavender from the wild and the building of a trading network for the upcoming perfume industry and later to the introduction of crop husbandry practices in the wild stands. Only since about the 1920s has lavender been cultivated. The first plantations were of L. angustifolia ; from 1923 experimental plantations of L. × intermedia , which had to be multiplied vegetatively, proved very successful. Cultivation spread rapidly, as crop husbandry methods and marketing had already been developed. L. stoechas and L. latifolia are occasionally collected from wild stands for their essential oils. Lavenders are only occasionally cultivated in South-East Asia, mostly as ornamentals.
Uses
Lavender (all parts, but particularly flowering branches) is of ancient use as an aromatic and medicinal plant. It was used in Roman times to perfume bath water. Today, the lavender oils combined rank economically among the 10 most important essential oils of the world after citrus, rose and mint oils. L. angustifolia yields true lavender oil, which is an important component in luxury perfumery, while L. × intermedia yielding the less costly lavandin oil is used to scent cosmetic products, detergents and soaps and to impart aroma to various foods. Lavender oil has been applied in painting, as preservative in egg-based distemper and as an additive to oil paints. The oil from L. latifolia is of limited interest as an aroma material. L. stoechas has been grown since the Middle Ages in England and the Mediterranean for its scent. In western India it is still a medicinal plant. Sachets filled with dried flowers, leaves and stalks of several Lavandula spp. are placed between clothes and linen to impart a pleasant smell and to repel moths. Lavender is also used to flavour tea, salad oil and vinegar, drinks, sweets and food. The flowers are a source of honey. Malay people pour out lavender water at grave sites in libation ceremonies.
Lavandula has played an important role in medicine since antiquity and its effectiveness as bactericide and astringent has been confirmed experimentally. Large amounts of lavender were burnt in France until the 18th Century during plague epidemics to ward off the disease. Infusions of the flowers are taken against throat complaints, the oil is employed as insect repellent, to treat insect bites, to heal burns and wounds and as vermifuge. The aroma has a calming effect and can soothe headaches and help treat insomnia.
Production and international trade
Annual world production of lavender oil is about 250 t (1995-1998), that of lavandin oil is over 1000 t and is still increasing. The main producers of lavender oil are Bulgaria (over 100 t per year) and France (nearly 100 t), while France is the main producer of lavandin oil with over 800 t per annum of which 500 t are from cv. Grosso. The value of lavender oil is about US$ 30 per kg, that of lavandin oil about US$ 11.5 per kg (1998). Spike lavender oil and cantueso oil are of minor importance. Spike lavender oil is mainly produced in Spain and Portugal. Its production is declining gradually, from a maximum of over 200 t per year to about 50 t at present. The total quantity of cantueso oil produced is less than 100 kg per year.
Properties
The essential oil steam-distilled from the flowering branches of L. angustifolia is a colourless or pale yellow liquid. Its aroma has a sweet, fresh-fruity top note, a sweet, floral-herbaceous, refreshing body and a pleasant, herbal, balsamic-woody undertone. Its main chemical components are: linalool, linalyl acetate, 1,8-cineole, limonene, pinenes, caryophyllene and lavandulyl acetate. Linalyl butyrate and N compounds, present in traces only, are said to add a characteristic aromatic note. In perfumery, lavender oil from clonal plantings is considered less rich and consequently of poorer quality than the oil from more variable crops grown from seed. English lavender oil, which is distilled exclusively from the flowers of cultivars selected in the United Kingdom, has a somewhat different character. It is richer in linalool and rather poor in linalyl esters, but lacks the harshness of spike lavender and lavandin oil.
Each cultivar of L. × intermedia yields an oil with its own characteristics, but in general their odour is close to that of lavender oil but harsher and often with a camphorous note inherited from L. latifolia. The oil has a fresh, strongly herbaceous, cineolic top note that should not be distinctly camphorous, a rich, herbaceous, woody body and a delicate herbal dry-out lasting 24 hours. Its chemical composition is similar to lavender oil, the camphor content may be as low as 0.7% and as high as 8%.
Spike lavender oil obtained by steam distillation (mostly in France) or by water and steam distillation (mostly in Spain) of flowering branches of L. latifolia is a pale yellow to water-white, mobile liquid with a cineolic top note, a fresh, herbaceous body and a somewhat dry-woody undertone. Its main chemical components are linalool, camphor, camphene and 1,8-cineole. The oil is considered inferior to true lavender oil and lavandin oil.
The essential oil from L. stoechas, cantueso oil, is only used medicinally and contains the following chemical components: fenchone, camphor, pinocarvyl acetate and smaller amounts of fenchol, myrtenal, myrtenol, cis-verbenol, p-cymen-8-ol, trans-carveol, cadinene and ledol.
Lavender oil and lavandin oil have been approved for food use by the Food and Drug Administration of the United States under paragraph 182.20. The maximum use level in food products is about 0.004% (in baked goods). The oils are "generally recognized as safe" (GRAS Nos 2622 and 2618, respectively). The same is true for spike lavender oil (GRAS No 3033). See also: Composition of essential-oil samples and the Table on standard physical properties.
Adulterations and substitutes
True lavender oil may be adulterated with oil from other Lavandula spp., but rigorous inspection and the use of standard qualities in perfumery has limited the practice. As a source of linalool lavandin oil can be replaced in most applications by linalool from several other sources, the price of the oil often being the main consideration. Spike lavender oil is more often adulterated because of its relatively high price and the easy availability of adulterants such as sage oil, lavandin oil and eucalyptus oil.
Description
- Aromatic shrubs or rarely perennial herbs, erect or ascending, often much branched, with stellate indumentum; root system superficial.
- Leaves opposite, simple, exstipulate, usually entire. Inflorescence terminal, lax or crowded spike-like, composed of axillary, 1-10-flowered verticillasters; bracts distinct from leaves; bracteoles usually absent or indistinct.
- Flowers with short pedicel or subsessile; calyx ovoid-tubular to tubular, slightly dilated in fruit, straight, 2-lipped, upper lip not lobed, protracted into an appendage, lower lip equally (2-)4-toothed, teeth narrower than in upper lip; corolla sympetalous, usually blue or purple, sometimes white or pink; tube exserted, throat somewhat dilated; limb 2-lipped, upper lip 2-lobed, lower one 3-lobed; stamens 4, didynamous, anterior 2 longest, included in corolla tube; ovary superior, deeply 4-partite, glabrous; style inserted at ovary base, apex bifid with flattened lobes.
- Fruit a conglomerate of 4, 1-seeded, smooth, shiny nutlets, with a basal-dorsal areole.
L. angustifolia :
- Shrub, 1-2 m tall. Branches grey-brown to dark brown with long flowering and short leafy shoots, bark longitudinally peeling.
- Leaves clustered on leafy shoots, widely spaced on flowering shoots; petiole very short; blade linear-lanceolate to linear, 17 mm × 2 mm on leafy shoots, 2-6 cm × 3-6 mm on flowering shoots, grey stellate tomentose, base attenuate, margin entire, revolute, apex obtuse.
- Inflorescence a crowded, interrupted or nearly continuous spike, 2-8 cm long; verticillasters numerous, 6-10-flowered, upper ones densely crowded; peduncle about 3 times longer than the spike; bracts papery, rhombic-ovate, 3-8 mm long, length/width ratio 0.8-2.2, rust-coloured when dry; bracteoles absent or up to 2.5 mm long.
- Pedicel 1-1.5 mm long; calyx 4-7 mm long, densely grey stellate tomentose outside, with 13 longitudinal ribs, upper lip entire, appendage obcordate, lower one 4-toothed; corolla 10-12 mm long, blue, densely tomentose outside, base subglabrous, throat and limb glandular hairy, upper lip straight, its lobes circular, slightly overlapping, lower lip spreading.
- Nutlets narrowly cylindrical.
L. latifolia :
- Half-shrub, 1-2 m tall.
- Leaves clustered at branch bases, widely spaced apically, oblong-lanceolate, 2-6 cm × 0.5-1 cm, densely grey-green stellate tomentose, base attenuate, margin entire, apex obtuse to acute.
- Inflorescence interrupted and often branched, 15-25 cm long; peduncle 17-30 cm long; bracts linear, almost 1 cm long; bracteoles linear, up to 3 mm long; verticillasters 7-8, 4-6-flowered, lax.
- Calyx tubular, straight, 5-6 mm long, densely stellate tomentose, 13-veined, 5-toothed, posterior tooth largest; corolla 8-10 mm long, purple, densely tomentose, upper lip straight, lobes divaricate almost at a right angle, ovate, apex obtuse, lobes of lower lip subcircular.
- Nutlet cylindrical.
L. stoechas :
- A very variable shrub up to 1 m tall, grey-tomentose. Leaves linear to oblong-lanceolate, 10-40 mm long, sessile, usually grey-tomentose.
- Spike very dense, usually 2-3 cm long; peduncle length very variable; fertile bracts rhombic-cordate, 4-8 mm long, tomentose; upper sterile bracts oblong-obovate, 10-50 mm long, usually purple, often forming a coma on top of the spike; verticillasters 6-10-flowered.
- Calyx 4-6 mm long, 13-veined, upper tooth with an apical, obcordate appendage 1-1.5 mm wide; corolla 6-8 mm long, usually dark purple, rarely white to pink.
L. × intermedia : variably intermediate between its parents L. angustifolia and L. latifolia .
Growth and development
Lavenders are short-lived perennials. After establishment in the field a first small harvest of flowers is possible after 1 year. Real production starts in the 2nd year, peaks in the 3rd and 4th years and can continue for 10-15 years, depending on soil conditions and diseases. Essential oil content starts declining from the 5th year onwards. In France, flowering and harvesting is between mid-July and mid-September depending on species and cultivar. In France, L. latifolia flowers 2-3 weeks later than L. angustifolia. Best harvest time is when 60-80% of the crop is in flower. Pollination is mainly effected by insects, in France by commercially exploited honeybees. Nectar extraction by bees is said to raise the return of the oil by 10-15% too.
Other botanical information
In L. angustifolia 2 subspecies and many cultivars (mostly ornamentals) are distinguished:
- subsp. angustifolia : bracts usually shorter than the calyx; calyx 4-6 mm long, appendage of upper lip obscure. Occurring throughout the range of the species. Several cultivar groups can be distinguished on the basis of flower colour:
- Blue-flowered cultivars, e.g.: "Backhouse Purple", flowering plants up to 90 cm tall; "Maillette", flowering plants up to 45 cm tall, in France important in clonal plantations; "Munstead", flowering plants up to 40 cm tall, spikes loose; "Super Bleue", most important cultivar for the production of dried flowers in France.
- Pink-flowered cultivars, e.g.: "Rosea", vegetatively up to 25 cm, flowering up to 45 cm tall, used in eau-de-Cologne; "Hidcote Pink", dwarf and dense, up to 30 cm tall; "Loddon Pink", up to 45 cm tall, flowers soft pink.
- Purple-flowered cultivars, e.g.: "Atropurpurea", very dark purple; "Hidcote Giant", up to 1 m tall, flowers deep purple; "Middachten", flowering plants up to 45 cm tall, plants are weak and strike root poorly; "Royal Purple"; "Summerland Supreme".
- White-flowered cultivars, e.g.: "Alba", dwarf, vegetatively up to 35 cm, flowering up to 45 cm tall; "Dutch White", tall with leaves up to 7 cm long; "Nana Alba", dwarf, vegetatively 10 cm and flowering up to 25 cm tall.
Based on robustness there is a group of cultivars called Dauphiné Lavender (classified as var. delphinensis Rouy & Foucaud). This group has flowering stems up to 50 cm long, with leaves sometimes slightly revolute and widely interrupted spikes. It is said to grow in valleys and to be less fragrant than dwarf cultivars.
- subsp. pyrenaica (DC.) Guinea: bracts usually exceeding calyx; calyx 6-7 mm long, appendage of upper lip distinct, hairs on calyx confined to the ribs. Occurring in the Pyrenees and northern Spain.
L. angustifolia grown for the essential oil is usually propagated from seed and although many cultivars are known, most are rarely used at present. More important are the cultivars that can be propagated vegetatively as clones. In France "Maillette" and "Matheronne" are most popular. The quality of their essential oil is inferior to that of oil from plantations raised from seed, but clonal plantations are uniform and more easily managed.
L. latifolia develops a shorter wood base than L. angustifolia, but its annual stems are as long as or longer than its ally. Its inflorescence is more slender and more often branched. It is not much cultivated.
L. stoechas is a very variable species. Mainly based on differences in length of peduncles, bracts, and spikes, and on differences in the calyx appendage, 6 subspecies have been distinguished. L. stoechas is not much cultivated for its essential oil, it has more value as an ornamental. Well known cultivars include: "Alba", flowers white; "James Compton", erect, up to 1 m tall with fragrant leaves, deep purple flowers and large pale purple bracts; "Papillon", sterile bracts very long and narrow, bright purple.
L. × intermedia is a sterile hybrid between L. angustifolia and L. latifolia and is intermediate in many characteristics, but is taller than both parents. The hybrids occur naturally in the altitudinal zone where the habitat of the parents overlap. The tall, sterile plants were noted already when lavender was only collected from wild stands and were first taken into cultivation in France in the 1920s. The major cultivars grown in France are: lavandin abrial ("Abrialii"), lavandin super ("Super") and lavandin grosso ("Grosso"). Lavandin abrial was the first cultivar developed, but due to its susceptibility to "lavender decline" has been almost completely replaced by lavandin grosso. "Grosso" is by far the most widely grown, planted on about 80% of the lavandin area. The essential-oil content of its flowers is only reasonable, but this is compensated by its very strong growth.
Ecology
Lavandula occurs naturally on dry, exposed, stony slopes. In their natural habitat L. angustifolia and L. latifolia are separated by altitude. In southern France the former occurs from 600-1400 m, the latter from 200-500(-600) m altitude. They are fairly tolerant of drought, tolerant of high temperatures during summer and frost in winter. L. angustifolia occasionally occurs below 600 m altitude and then often hybridizes with L. longifolia. In cultivation, L. angustifolia is found at lower altitudes than when growing wild, and mainly up to 800 m. It requires a well-drained soil. In their natural habitat L. angustifolia and to a lesser extent L. × intermedia and L. latifolia prefer calcareous soils, while L. stoechas is found on siliceous soils.
Propagation and planting
L. angustifolia is mostly propagated by seed, sown either in autumn or in spring, depending on the severity of the winter. Sowing was formerly often done directly into the field, but the use of nurseries has become common practice. Plants remain in the nursery for at least a year. Clonal plantings of L. angustifolia and L. × intermedia are made from cuttings. Healthy mother plants are cut near ground level; the branches can be stored for several months in a cool damp place until labour is available to divide them into cuttings of 10-15 cm long with 1-2 branches. Cuttings are planted out in a nursery in spring. They should be planted deep, about two-thirds of the cutting should be in the ground. They are ready for transplanting after about one year. Cuttings from green branches can also be used, provided they are treated with growth hormones and kept in a greenhouse under mist. Recently, in vitro methods have been developed for the multiplication of lavender.
Planting out in the field is done in autumn, except where low winter temperatures might cause damage to the young plants. Planting is either in rows 1.5 m apart with 0.4 m within the row, or in a square arrangement at a wide spacing allowing each plant to grow out fully, using 10 000 plants/ha for L. angustifolia or 4000-5000 plants/ha for L. × intermedia.
Husbandry
Many spontaneous fields of lavenders in the north-western Mediterranean, especially in France, have been improved by husbandry methods. Clearing of stones and application of ash as fertilizer were among the first measures taken. Fields were also ploughed to uproot old plants and stimulate the growth of young ones. Natural stands should be grazed, as otherwise broom (Cytisus sp.) may replace lavender as the dominant vegetation.
In cultivated lavender, the soil is loosened superficially 2-3 times during spring to maintain a soil mulch and to control weeds. Care should be taken to avoid damaging the superficial root system. Weeding can also be done with herbicides. Where weeding is neglected, dodder (Cuscuta sp.) can become a serious problem. Regular applications of fertilizers are recommended; in France, N fertilizer is recommended after harvesting and in spring.
In L. angustifolia , selections from high elevations and north-facing slopes giving the best quality oil were often used. These selections were then planted at lower elevations on south-facing slopes and on very poor soils. Higher plant densities often used in row plantings increased the risk of moisture stress. Mechanized maintenance caused damage to the root system, further aggravating the situation. Under such conditions crops survive for only a few years, making them very susceptible to "lavender decline". L. × intermedia, although adapted to lower altitudes, also suffered from being planted on poor, drought-prone soils, too high planting densities and root damage due to mechanical weeding. Many selections that inherited a poor adaptation to calcareous soils from L. latifolia, suffered when planted on soils suitable for plantings of L. angustifolia. Under such conditions the life of L. × intermedia was also reduced to about 3 years. The robust "Grosso" is more tolerant of the conditions leading to "lavender decline" and has become the dominant cultivar in south-eastern France.
Diseases and pests
Since the 1950s "lavender decline" ("dépérissement") has caused serious losses in lavender in France and neighbouring countries mainly by reducing the economic life of plantations from 15-20 years to as little as 3 years, rendering the crop uneconomic. The disease is probably caused by a combination of unfavourable growing conditions and mycoplasmas. Root rot caused by Armillaria mellea is the most serious fungal disease in lavenders. There is no economic method of control, and prevention by cleaning fields before planting and rogueing of infected plants are the only possible measures. Thomasiniana lavandulae is the most important of the various insects attacking lavenders. Its larvae feed under the bark, causing the tops of branches to dry out and break.
Harvesting
Lavenders are harvested when in full bloom; in France from 15 July to 15 September for L. angustifolia and L. × intermedia. Formerly, harvesting was done by hand using a sickle, but mechanical harvesters have been developed. When harvesting by hand, a very productive labourer can cut 500-600 kg lavender stalks per day, mechanical harvesters 3-4 ha or 7500 kg.
Yield
In France, the yield of lavender oil is about 40 kg/ha, that of lavandin oil up to 120 kg/ha, while the yield of spike lavender oil is about 50 kg/ha.
Handling after harvest
After harvesting, stalks of lavender are left to dry in the field for a few days. They are then steam-distilled, either in small field stills or in large factories. Small modern stills can distil about 1000 kg stalks in 30 minutes.
For the production of dried flowers, stalks are dried for several days turning them 2-3 times per day. When fully dry, a tractor is passed over the stalks to free the flowers. They are then collected and carefully cleaned.
Genetic resources
Germplasm collections of Lavandula are maintained by the Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA) in Antibes, France and smaller ones in the Western Regional Plant Introduction Station, Pullman, Washington, United States.
Breeding
Interest in breeding work of lavender has declined since the development of L. × intermedia "Grosso" and of clonal selection of L. angustifolia. The high costs and long time required to develop new cultivars limit interest in breeding work.
Prospects
Although the fragrance of lavender is currently less in vogue than in the first half of the 20th Century, lavender remains one of the most widely used natural fragrance materials. In luxury perfumes, the essential oil from plantings of L. angustifolia grown from seed will remain a component that can hardly be replaced by synthetic aroma compounds. In South-East Asia the main use of lavender will probably remain as an ornamental, but the potential of lavender as an essential oil crop in the region should be considered seriously.
Literature
- Boelens, M.H., 1995. Chemical and sensory evaluation of Lavandula oils. Perfume and Flavorist 20(3): 23-51.
- Chaytor, D.A., 1937. A taxonomic study of the genus Lavandula. Journal of the Linnean Society, Botany 51: 153-204.
- Gras, R. & Montarone, M., 1993. Le dépérissement des plantes arbustives à parfum. 1ère partie: la mise en culture; 2ème partie: l'évolution des techniques [Decline of perfume shrub-plants. part 1: domestication; part 2: evolution of techniques]. PHM Revue Horticole 335: 17-20; 336: 19-24.
- Guinea, E., 1972. Lavandula. In: Tutin, T.G. et al. (Editors): Flora Europaea. Vol. 3. University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom. pp. 187-188.
- Kokkalou, E., 1988. The constituents of the essential oil from Lavandula stoechas growing wild in Greece. Planta Medica 54: 58-59.
- Lawrence, B., 1996. Progress in essential oils. Perfumer and Flavorist 21: 55-68.
- Meunier, C., 1992. Lavandes et lavandins [Lavenders and bastard lavenders]. Édisud, Aix en Provence, France. 224 pp.
- Peracino, V., Caramiello, R. & Maffei, R., 1994. Essential oils from some Lavandula hybrids growing spontaneously in north west Italy. Flavour and Fragrance Journal 9: 11-17.
- Segura, J. & Calvo, M.C., 1991. Lavandula spp. (Lavender): in vitro culture, regeneration of plants, and the formation of essential oils and pigments. In: Bajaj, Y.P.S. (Editor): Biotechnology in agriculture and forestry. Vol. 15. Medicinal and poisonous plants. Springer Verlag, Berlin, Germany. pp. 283-310.
- Tucker, A.O. & Hensen, K.J.W., 1985. The cultivars of lavender and lavandin (Labiatae). Baileya 22: 168-177.
Composition of essential-oil
Lavender oil (Lavandula angustifolia)
- 21.5% linalyl acetate
- 17.8% linalool
- 8.2% (Z)-β-ocimene
- 8.0% β-caryophyllene
- 7.3% lavandulyl acetate
- 6.4% terpinen-4-ol
- 6.2% (E)-β-ocimene
- 2.5% 1-octenyl-3 acetate
- 2.0% β-farnesene
- 1.4% 3-octanone
- 1.3% myrcene
- 1.2% lavandulol
- 1.1% α-santalene
- 1.0% borneol
- 1.0% α-terpineol
- 1.0% geranyl acetate
- 0.9% 1,8-cineole
- 0.9% germacrene D
- 0.6% bornyl acetate
- 0.6% hexyl acetate
- 0.5% neryl acetate
- 0.5% 1-octenol-3
- 0.5% camphor
- 0.4% geraniol
- 0.4% limonene
- 0.4% γ-terpinene
- 0.4% hexyl butyrate
- 0.3% α-pinene
- 0.3% isocaryophyllene oxide
- 0.3% T-cadinol
- 0.3% para-cymene
- 0.3% α-humulene
- 0.3% γ-cadinene
- 0.3% butyl butyrate
- 0.2% nerol
- 0.2% α-thujene
- 0.2% camphene
- 0.2% β-pinene
- 0.2% cryptone
- 0.2% 3-octanol
- 0.2% 3-octyl acetate
- 0.2% para-cymen-8-ol
- 0.2% trans-linalool oxide (5) (furanoid)
- 0.2% cis-linalool oxide (5) (furanoid)
- 0.2% terpinolene
- 0.2% α-bergamotene
- 0.1% δ-3-carene
- 0.1% cuminaldehyde
- 0.1% β-bergamotene
- 0.1% α-terpinene
- 0.1% sabinene hydrate
- 0.1% (E,Z)-1,3,5-undecatriene
- 0.1% butyl tiglate
- 0.1% linalyl hexanoate
- 0.1% hexyl tiglate
- 0.1% hexyl methyl ether
- 0.1% hexyl isobutyrate
- 0.1% acetone
- 0.1% α-phellandrene
- 0.1% butyl acetate
- 0.1% sabinene
- 0.1% α-eka-santalal
- trace alloocimene (unknown isomer)
- trace 1-hexanol
- trace epoxy-linalyl acetate (isomer 1)
- trace β-santalene
- trace hexyl propionate
- trace butyl isobutyrate
- trace tricyclene
- trace octanal
- trace nonanal
- trace carvone
- trace thymol
- trace hexanal
- trace caryophyllene oxide
- trace cubenol
- trace hotrienol
- trace 2-hexenal
- trace trans-ocimene epoxide
- trace butyl benzoate
- trace dimethyl disulfide
- trace rosefuran
- trace cis-linalool oxide (6) (pyranoid)
- trace trans-linalool oxide (6) (pyranoid)
- trace pentanal
- trace prenol
- trace (E,Z,Z)-1,3,5,8-undecatetraene
- trace butyl propionate
- 100.0% total
Lavandin oil "Grosso" (Lavandula ×intermedia)
- 26.2% linalyl acetate
- 22.5% linalool
- 12.2% camphor
- 10.2% 1,8-cineole
- 3.3% terpinen-4-ol
- 2.9% borneol
- 2.7% β-caryophyllene
- 2.3% lavandulyl acetate
- 1.5% myrcene
- 1.2% geranyl acetate
- 1.2% α-terpineol
- 1.1% β-farnese
- 1.1% germacrene D
- 1.1% (Z)-β-ocimene
- 0.9% limonene
- 0.8% lavandulol
- 0.6% α-pinene
- 0.5% (E)-β-ocimene
- 0.4% β-pinene
- 0.4% γ-terpineol
- 0.4% γ-terpinene
- 0.4% β-bisabolol
- 0.3% camphene
- 0.3% hexyl butyrate
- 0.3% terpinolene
- 0.3% 1-octenyl-3 acetate
- 0.3% γ-cadinene
- 0.2% bornyl acetate
- 0.2% geraniol
- 0.2% α-santalene
- 0.2% T-cadinol
- 0.2% plinol (isomer)
- 0.2% sabinene hydrate
- 0.2% α-humulene
- 0.2% hexyl acetate
- 0.2% para-cymene
- 0.2% cis-linalool oxide (5) (furanoid)
- 0.2% trans-linalool oxide (5) (furanoid)
- 0.1% sabinene
- 0.1% 5-methyl-3-heptanone
- 0.1% neryl acetate
- 0.1% hexyl tiglate
- 0.1% α-thujene
- 0.1% caryophyllene oxide
- 0.1% 1-octenol-3
- 0.1% bisabolene (unknown isomer)
- 0.1% butyl tiglate
- 0.1% isofenchone
- 0.1% α-phellandrene
- 0.1% δ-3-carene
- 0.1% α-terpinene
- 0.1% nerol
- 0.1% hexyl-2-methylbutanoate
- 0.1% hexyl methyl ether
- trace hexyl isobutyrate
- trace 3-octanone
- trace butyl butyrate
- trace p-cymen-8-ol
- trace cuminaldehyde
- trace 1-hexanol
- trace epoxy-linalyl acetate (isomer 2)
- trace hexyl propionate
- trace lavandulyl butyrate
- trace tricyclene
- trace octanal
- trace carvone
- trace fenchone
- trace cubenol
- trace α-fenchene
- trace epoxy-linalyl acetate (isomer 1)
- trace 2-hexenal
- trace trans-linalool oxide (6) (pyranoid)
- trace acetone
- trace octyl acetate
- trace β-bergamotene
- trace undecatriene (unknown isomer)
- trace butyl isobutyrate
- trace linalyl hexanoate
- trace lavandulyl epoxide
- 99.3% total
Spike lavender oil (Lavandula latifolia)
- 41.7% linalool
- 26.3% 1,8-cineole
- 12.8% camphor
- 2.1% β-pinene
- 1.9% α-bisabolene
- 1.8% α-pinene
- 1.4% β-caryophyllene
- 1.1% limonene
- 1.1% linalyl acetate
- 1.0% α-terpineol
- 0.8% borneol
- 0.6% camphene
- 0.6% sabinene
- 0.6% terpinen-4-ol
- 0.6% lavandulol
- 0.4% α-humulene
- 0.4% δ-cadinene
- 0.3% bornyl acetate
- 0.3% trans-linalool oxide (unknown isomer)
- 0.2% myrcene
- 0.2% α-terpinene
- 0.2% (E)-β-ocimene
- 0.2% γ-terpinene
- 0.2% terpinolene
- 0.2% γ-cadinene
- 0.2% isoborneol
- 0.2% 1-octenol-3
- 0.2% cis-linalool oxide (unknown isomer)
- 0.2% α,p-dimethylstyrene
- 0.2% 3-octanone
- 0.1% α-phellandrene
- 0.1% (Z)-β-ocimene
- 0.1% geraniol
- 0.1% 1-octanol
- 0.1% coumarin
- 0.1% α-thujene
- 0.1% nerol
- 0.1% isoamyl acetate
- 0.1% eugenol
- 0.1% caryophyllene oxide
- 0.1% 1-hexanol
- 0.1% hexyl acetate
- 0.1% butyl acetate
- 0.1% dihydrocoumarin
- 99.0% total
Physical properties of essential oil
lavender oil (Lavandula angustifolia)
- Relative density : 0.880-0.890
- Refractive index : 1.458-1.464
- Optical rotation : -11.5° to -7°
- Miscibility in ethanol : 1:2 (75%)
- ISO/EOA : ISO 3515 '87
lavender oil "Maillette" (Lavandula angustifolia)
- Relative density : 0.880-0.890
- Refractive index : 1.455-1.460
- Optical rotation : -12.5° to -9.5°
- Miscibility in ethanol : 1:3 (70%)
- ISO/EOA : ISO 3515 '87
lavandin oil "Abrialii" (Lavandula ×intermedia)
- Relative density : 0.885-0.897
- Refractive index : 1.459-1.466
- Optical rotation : -7° to -2°
- Miscibility in ethanol : 1:4 (70%)
- ISO/EOA : ISO 3054 '87
lavandin oil "Grosso" (Lavandula ×intermedia)
- Relative density : 0.891-0.899
- Refractive index : 1.458-1.462
- Optical rotation : -7° to -3.5°
- Miscibility in ethanol : 1:3 (70%)
- ISO/EOA : ISO/DIS 8902 '97
spike lavender oil, Spain (Lavandula latifolia)
- Relative density : 0.894-0.917
- Refractive index : 1.461-1.468
- Optical rotation : -7° to +2°
- Miscibility in ethanol : 1:3 (70%)
- ISO/EOA : ISO 4719 '83
See comments : Physical properties of essential oils (PROSEA)
Sources of illustrations
Bonnier, G., Douin, R., & Poinsot, J., 1990. La grande flore en couleurs de Gaston Bonnier [The large flora in colours of Gaston Bonnier]. 2nd ed. (Palese, R. & Aeschiman, D., Editors). Vol. 2. Editions Belin, Paris, France. Fig. 468 (flowering branches of L. angustifolia and L. stoechas). Hensen, K.J.W., 1974. Het Lavendula-sortiment [The Lavendula assortment]. Groen 30: 184-190 (inflorescence and corollas L. angustifolia). Redrawn and adapted by P. Verheij-Hayes.
Authors
H.C. Ong
