Borreria (PROSEA)

Plant Resources of South-East Asia
Introduction

Protologue: Prim. fl. esseq.: 79 (1818).

Family: Rubiaceae

Chromosome number: x= 14, 28; B. hispida: 2n= 56, B. laevis: 2n= 24-28, B. ocymoides: 2n= (28), 40, 52-56, B. verticillata: 2n= 28

Major species

Borreria laevis (Lamk) Griseb.,
B. ocymoides (Burm.f.) DC.,
B. verticillata (L.) G. Mey.

Vernacular name

Button weed (En).

Origin and geographic distribution

Borreria (including Spermacoce) comprises about 100–-150 species, mainly from tropical and subtropical America, but many species have been introduced into the Old World as weeds. About 10 species occur in South-East Asia.

Uses

In Peninsular Malaysia, the leaves of B. hispida or B. ocymoides are applied in poultices to treat headache, by cooling down the head, or mixed with other herbs applied to children with stomach-ache. The sap from the leaves of B. hispida, as well as those from B. laevis in South America, is applied to wounds and sores, to disinfect them. In Java, the stem and leaves of B. hispida, crushed with Alyxia R.Br., are used for diarrhoea. An infusion is taken for gallstones and kidney stones. In Papua New Guinea, the leaves of B. laevis, together with the scraped roots of Desmodium sequax Wallich and rhizomes of wild ginger, and mixed with ash, are made into a small bundle, which is squeezed empty into a tooth to relieve toothache. B. verticillata was formerly cultivated experimentally in Java, because of its stimulating action on the stomach, which in low doses resembles the action of Psychotria ipecacuanha (Brot.) Stokes (synonym Cephaelis ipecacuanha (Brot.) A. Rich.) and related species. In India it is used for intestinal parasites. Several Borreria species are stocked by Chinese herbalists in South-East Asia.

In India, the seeds of B. hispida are used as a substitute for coffee and the leaves are eaten as a vegetable in times of scarcity.

Production and international trade

Borreria is only used om a local scale.

Properties

The aerial parts of B. verticillata contain an essential oil, which was shown to have antibacterial action on Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Vibrio cholerae and gram-negative bacteria such as Enterobacteria and Pseudomonas. It also showed antifungal action by inhibiting conidial germination of Drechslera oryzae.

The aerial parts also contain a mixture of borrerine, borreverine and isoborreverine together with spermacoceine, which are all indole alkaloids derived from the amino acid tryptophan. A series of iridoids was isolated from the root bark of B. verticillata, consisting of daphylloside, asperuloside, feretoside, methyl desacetylasperulosidate, desacetylasperuloside, asperulosidic acid and desacetylasperulosidic acid.

Pharmacological effects of B. verticillata extracts furthermore include schistosomicidal activity.

An infusion of the leaves of B. hispida showed a significant influence on solubility of kidney stones in vitro and artificial urethra stones in white rats.

The methanol extract of B. laevis exhibited herbicidal activity against Lepidium sativum L., but also against seedlings of crops such as Sesamum. The extract also showed molluscicidal activity against Biomphalaria glabrata and Pomacea canaliculata.

Phytochemical screening of B. ocimoides revealed the presence of alkaloids and cardiac glycosides. Aqueous and alcoholic extracts inhibited the growth of Candida albicans, E. coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Proteus mirabilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, S. aureus and β-haemolytic streptococci.

Adulterations and substitutes

"Ipecacuanha" (mainly from Psychotria ipecacuanha) is sometimes used in small doses as a substitute for B. hispida or B. verticillata, because of its stimulating action on the stomach.

Description

Annual or perennial herbs.
Leaves decussate, simple, entire; petiole short or almost absent; stipules interpetiolar, normally fringed.
Inflorescence an axillary or terminal, sessile, few- to many-flowered fascicle.
Flowers bisexual, actinomorphic, calyx 2- or 4-lobed, corolla campanulate, urceolate or funnel-shaped, 4-lobed, valvate in bud, stamens 4, inserted at base of tube, exserted, ovary inferior, 2-celled, 1-ovuled, style 2-lobed or 2-branched.
Fruit a capsule, tipped with floral remnants, dehiscing with 2 valves, valves at base remaining attached to each other, septa detaching from the valves or not.
Seed plano-convex, ventrally with a longitudinal groove.
Seedling with epigeal germination.

Growth and development

Borreria can be found flowering throughout the year when sufficient water is available. Borreria is pollinated by insects, mainly thrips, but also by (stingless) bees, searching for honey.

Other botanical information

Borreria is the largest genus in the tribe Spermacoceae, and is very problematic with regard to both generic and infrageneric classification. Many authors include Borreria (often also Dioida) in Spermacoce s. l., but as the status of some species treated here is not clear, they are kept in Borreria. Other authors keep at least the American Borreria species separate, but include Dioida at the subgeneric level only. B. articularis (L.f.) F.N. Williams is considered here as a synonym of B. hispida. According to some authors they belong to different species, representing the extremes of a complex species. B. hispida is in this case an erect herb, with terete stem, long spreading hairs, flexuous leaves, campanulate flowers, large fruits and seeds, while B. articularis is prostrate, with sharply 4-angled stem, scabrid hairs, normally flat leaves, funnel-like flowers and small fruits and seeds.

Ecology

Borreria grows mainly in regions with a short or long dry period, on many soil types, often in regularly disturbed localities, but also in grasslands and in secondary forest.

Propagation and planting

Borreria is propagated by seed. The seeds show little dormancy. A single plant of B. laevis may produce about 22 000 seeds under favourable growing conditions, and a life cycle can be completed in 3 months. Seed weight is about 18 mg/100 seeds.

Diseases and pests

Borreria is a host for several nematode species. Larvae of some hawkmoths use B. verticillata as primary feed plant. In India, B. hispida is an off-season host for the larvae of the groundnut leaf miner (Aproaerema modicella). Many Borreria species are weeds in annual and perennial crops throughout the world.

Harvesting

Borreria is harvested throughout the season, when needed. Normally, whole plants are pulled up.

Handling after harvest

Borreria is used fresh, or dried in the shade for later use.

Genetic resources and breeding

All Borreria species treated here have a large area of distribution, because of their weedy nature, and do not seem to be at risk of genetic erosion. There are no known breeding programmes of Borreria.

Prospects

In general ipecacuanha alkaloids (emetine, chephaëline) and resembling alkaloids display some schistosomicidal activity. In this respect the alkaloids found in Borreria deserve more research, in order to evaluate their possibilities.

Literature

Bacigalupo, N.M. & Cabral, E.L., 1996. Infrageneric classification of Borreria (Rubiaceae-Spermacoceae) on the basis of American species. Opera Botanica Belgica 7: 297-308.
Ebana, R.U., Madunagu, B.E., Ekpe, E.D. & Otung, I.N., 1991. Microbiological exploitation of cardiac glycosides and alkaloids from Garcinia kola, Borreria ocymoides, Kola nitida and Citrus aurantifolia. Journal of Applied Bacteriology 71(5): 398-401.
Heyne, K., 1950. De nuttige planten van Indonesië [The useful plants of Indonesia]. 3rd Edition. Vol. 2. W. van Hoeve, 's-Gravenhage, the Netherlands/Bandung, Indonesia. pp. 1412-1413.
Lebrun, J.-P., & Stork, A.L., 1997. Enumération des plantes à fleurs d’Afrique tropicale. Vol. 4. Gamopétales: Clethraceae à Lamiaceae [Enumeration of flowering plants of tropical Africa. Vol. 4. Gamopetales: Clethraceae to Lamiaceae]. Editions des Conservatoire et Jardin botaniques, Genève, Switzerland. pp. 225–-228.
Maynart, G., Pousset, J.L., Mboup, S. & Denis, F., 1980. Antibacterial effect of borreverine, an alkaloid isolated from Borreria verticillata (Rubiaceae). Comptes Rendus des Séances de la Societé de Biologie et de ses Filiales 174(5): 925–-928. (in French)
Sivarajan, V.V. & Nair, R.V., 1986. Taxonomic and nomenclatural notes on the Spermacoce hispida-articularis complex and the S. stricta-pusilla complex (Rubiaceae). Taxon 35: 363-369.

Selection of species

Authors

L.M. Noriel