Alpinia (PROSEA Essential oils)

Plant Resources of South-East Asia Introduction

List of species

Alpinia Roxburgh

Protologue: Asiat. Res. 11: 350 (1810).

Family: Zingiberaceae

Chromosome number: A. malaccensis: 2n= 48;A. zerumbet: 2n= 42

Major species and synonyms

• Alpinia galanga (L.) Willd. See Prosea No 13: Spices.

• Alpinia malaccensis (Burm.f.) Roscoe, Trans. Linn. Soc. 8: 345 (1808), synonyms: Maranta malaccensis Burm.f. (1768), Languas malaccensis Merrill (1921), Catimbium malaccense (Burm.f.) Holttum (1950).

• Alpinia zerumbet (Pers.) Burtt & Smith, Notes Royal Bot. Gard. Edinburgh 31: 204 (1972), synonyms: Zerumbet speciosum Wendl. (1798), Costus zerumbet Pers. (1805), Alpinia speciosa (Wendl.) K. Schum. (1904), Catimbium speciosum (Wendl.) Holttum (1950).

Vernacular names

• A. malaccensis : Indonesia: laja gowah (Sundanese), langkuas malaka (Moluccas), susuk (Lampung, Sumatra)
• Malaysia: puar, bangle
• Philippines: taglak babae
• Thailand: kha paa.

• A. zerumbet : Shell ginger, shell flower, light galangal (En). Atoumau (Martinique)(Fr)
• Indonesia: galoba merah, goloba koi, langkuas laki-laki (Moluccas)
• Philippines: langkuas na pula
• Vietnam: cay riề ấm, cay gừng ấm.

Origin and geographic distribution

Alpinia occurs throughout South and South-East Asia from India to Japan, the Philippines, New Guinea and Australia, extending into the Pacific. The origin of A. malaccensis is unknown; it is widespread from the moister parts of the Himalayas, the western Ghats and the hills of Bengal and Chittagong in India to Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines. It is cultivated in north-eastern India, Java (Indonesia) and Guandong (China). A. zerumbet is considered native to north-eastern India, Burma (Myanmar), Indo-China, China and Japan. It is cultivated throughout South-East Asia and in many other tropical and subtropical countries.

Uses

Many species of Alpinia are cultivated as garden plants and as pot plants for their attractive, often variegated leaves and striking inflorescences. A. galanga is an important spice and yields an essential oil marketed as galangal oil.

All parts of A. malaccensis are fragrant, and its leaves and rhizomes contain different essential oils. The essential oil from the leaves is marketed as "Essence of Amali" and is used in perfumery. In the Moluccas, women once perfumed their clothing and hair with the pounded skin of the fruit. The rhizome of A. malaccensis is occasionally used as a spice, while it is eaten as a vegetable in north-eastern India. The rhizomes were chewed in the Moluccas together with betel nut ( Areca catechu L.) to make the voice strong and clear. The pounded rhizome is applied to cure wounds, but it was also an ingredient in a kind of poison. The ripe and unripe fruits are well known in traditional medicine to control vomiting.

In Ambon the leaves of A. zerumbet were used as wrappers for cooked rice to impart a fine smell. The pith of the young stem was commonly eaten in parts of Malaysia. In eastern Asia the leaf sheaths are a source of fibre for rope, while paper is made from the whole plant. The paper is strong, transparent and of good quality. However, both rope and fibre are of local importance only and mainly used in times of scarcity. In the Philippines a decoction of the leaves is used as a bath against fevers. In China, the seed is used to clear away cold, invigorate the spleen and warm the stomach. Components from the seed have shown anti-stomach-ulcer properties. The rhizome has antibacterial properties and stimulates digestion. It is indicated in the treatment of dyspepsia, flatulence, vomiting, gastralgia, colic, diarrhoea and malaria.

Production and international trade

The essential oils of both the Alpinia species described here are traded in small quantities only and no statistics are available on production or trade.

Properties

Steam distillation of the leaves of A. malaccensis yields 0.1-0.2% of an essential oil called "Essence of Amali", consisting mainly of methyl cinnamate (75%), while the rhizomes yield 0.2-0.3% of a similar essential oil that is, however, less rich in associated pinenes and therefore has a slightly different scent. Seed of A. malaccensis from Guandong (China) contains 0.03% of an essential oil containing 1,8-cineole, citronellol, 4-phenyl-3-buten-2-one, decanoic acid, geranyl acetate, nerolidol, lauric acid,α-farnesol,β-farnesol, myristic acid, and palmitic acid.

A. zerumbet is aromatic in all its parts; fresh leaves contain 0.1-0.2% essential oil. It is impossible to present a general outline of the composition of the essential oil, because analyses show marked quantitative and qualitative differences. Possible reasons for this are differences in the genetic make-up of the sample plants used, in environmental conditions and in extraction methods. Analysis of leaf oils from Amazonia (Brazil), Egypt and Martinique indicated as main components: terpinen-4-ol, 1,8-cineole, @c-terpinene, sabinene, para-cymene,α-thujene,α-terpinene andβ-pinene, while the main components of an oil from Japan were camphor, camphene and cynnamyl acetate. The essential oil distilled from the rhizome in Egypt was rich in terpinen-4-ol, 1,8-cineole, sabinene, @c-terpinene and fenchyl acetate. A comparable oil distilled in Martinique consisted mainly of terpinen-4-ol (nearly 50%) andα-terpineol, while all other components occurred in very small quantities only.

Seed of A. zerumbet contains 0.3-0.5% essential oil. Chemical analysis of a seed oil from Guangzhou (China) indicated the following main components: para-cymene, 1,8-cineole and torreyol. Several compounds with in vitro antihistamine and spasmolytic activity have been isolated from the rhizomes of A. zerumbet , including the following sesquiterpenes:β-eudesmol, nerolidol, racemic humulene epoxides and 4-α-hydroxy-dihydroagarofuran. The activity of the essential oil against stomach-ache, vomiting and dyspepsia has been attributed to the compounds dihydro-5,6-dehydrokawain and 5,6-dehydrokawain. Dihydro-5.6-dehydrokawain also inhibits plant growth. See also: Composition of essential-oil samples.

Description

Perennial, erect herbs, with numerous leafy stems usually 2-4 m tall and creeping, fleshy rhizomes. Leaves numerous, distichous, usually petiolate, often sheathing; ligule well-developed; blade lanceolate to ovate, finely pinnately veined. Inflorescence usually terminal on leafy stem, spicate, paniculate or racemose, when young usually protected by spathe-like sterile bracts; fertile bracts subtending a cincinnus of 2-many flowers; bracteoles present or absent, sometimes tubular; calyx tubular, splitting unilaterally when flower expands; corolla tubular, tube usually not longer than the calyx, 3-lobed, lobes unequal, dorsal one largest; staminodes usually 3, labellum (anterior staminode) usually large and showy, 2 lateral staminodes small or absent; fertile stamen one, subsessile or with well-developed filament, anther sometimes with prolonged connective; pistil with a 3-locular ovary surrounded by massive glands, stigma expanded with a narrow, hairy orifice. Fruit a many-seeded, dehiscent capsule, crowned by calyx remnants. Seed angular, arillate.

• A. malaccensis . Robust herb, leafy stem 2-4 m tall, strongly aromatic when bruised. Leaf with densely short hairy sheath near the blade; ligule entire, up to 1 cm long, coriaceous, hairy; petiole rounded, 3-7 cm long, furrowed; blade narrowly lanceolate, 40-90 cm × 7(-20) cm, acuminate, usually densely pubescent below or pubescent on margins and midrib. Inflorescence erect or slightly curved, about 35 cm long, with 30 or more cincinni of usually 2 flowers each, main axis pubescent; bracts absent; bracteoles open to base, 1.5-2 cm long, folding round the bud and deciduous as the flower opens, white; cincinni of 2 very shortly pedicellate flowers or reduced to a single flower, stalk 0.5-1.5 cm long; calyx 2 cm long, shortly 3-lobed and deeply split unilaterally, white, pubescent; corolla white, tube up to 1 cm long, lobes ciliate, lateral lobes 3 cm × 1 cm, dorsal lobe up to 4 cm × 2.5 cm; labellum broadly ovate, 3-5 cm long and at widest part 3 cm across, sides incurved, narrowing to an emarginate apex, at the base with 2 papillose fleshy swellings, yellow-orange with scarlet lines; lateral staminodes subulate, up to 5 mm long; filament about 1 cm long, anther connective not prolonged into a crest; ovary 5 mm long, pubescent; epigynous glands 5, free, 5 mm long. Capsule globose, up to 3 cm in diameter, shortly pubescent, red. Seed 3-4-angular, about 5 mm long.

• A. zerumbet . In general much like A. malaccensis ; main differences are: leafy stem up to 2 m tall; petiole up to 2.5 cm long; inflorescence decurved or drooping, up to 20 cm long, bearing 25 or more cincinni of 2 flowers each, but the flowers are larger; bracteoles white with pink apex; labellum entire or shallowly lobed; fruit orange.

Growth and development

A large clump of up to 1 m in diameter may develop within a year after vegetative propagation from a portion of rhizome. In Java A. malaccensis flowers throughout the year.

Other botanical information

There have been several attempts at a subgeneric classification of the large genus Alpinia (about 230 species). The most recent classification, based mainly on the character of the labellum (petaloid or non-petaloid), divides the genus into 2 subgenera: subgenus Alpinia occurring throughout the area of distribution of the genus but with a centre of diversity in continental Asia, and subgenus Dieramalpinia (K. Schum.) K. Schum. absent from continental Asia and with a centre of diversity in New Guinea and the Moluccas. In subgenus Alpinia the labellum is usually concave with incurved margins, commonly striped or spotted, the margins extending into a petaloid area with divergent venation. In subgenus Dieramalpinia the labellum is held erect and almost always closely pressed against the stamen, usually not striped or spotted, lateral margins not well developed, the apex only occasionally expanding into a small petaloid area. The Alpinia species discussed here belong to subgenus Alpinia section Alpinia subsection Catimbium (Horan.) R.M. Smith. The subsection is distributed from eastern India and Sri Lanka to eastern China and Taiwan and through South-East Asia to New Guinea. It does not occur naturally in Sumatra, Java and the Lesser Sunda Islands.

A. malaccensis var. nobilis (Ridley) I.M. Turner occurs from Java and Peninsular Malaysia to Indo-China and north-eastern India. It is characterized by its large flowers and large, hairy leaves. A. latilabris Ridley is another species in subsection Catimbium occurring in Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia and Indo-China, which also contains an essential oil in all parts. A. officinarum Hance is grown in Hainan and the adjacent coast of mainland China; its rhizome is the source of true galangal oil used in flavour and perfume compositions to which it imparts unique, warm, spicy notes. A. galanga was formerly used as a source of essential oil, but is now only used as a spice. The latter 2 species belong to subsection Alpinia .

Ecology

A. malaccensis and A. zerumbet occur mainly in secondary vegetation, bamboo and teak forest, brushwood and ravines; they prefer shady conditions. Both grow only rarely in primary forest. In Java, A. malaccensis is grown from sea-level up to 1500 m altitude; in the Western Ghats in India up to 1000 m. In Malaysia it probably escaped from cultivation in Melaka and is now found wild in swampy areas in Pahang and Selangor. For optimal growth it requires a temperature of 27-30°C during daytime and 17-18°C at night, filtered or diffuse sunlight and adequate watering.

Agronomy

A. malaccensis is mainly a smallholder crop, usually planted along the border of gardens. Long top-ends of rhizomes are used for propagation and should be planted in well tilled soil. When grown in rows, plants are spaced at 1 m. Weeding and subsequent earthing-up of the rhizomes are carried out every month until 6 months after planting. The rhizomes are harvested after 8 months. Whole plants are pulled up, the shoots cut off and the rhizomes washed and cleaned. One 8-month-old plant yields about 1 kg rhizomes and 35 kg leaves. The rhizomes and leaves are marketed fresh or dried.

A. zerumbet is produced commercially in the United States and Europe as an ornamental and can be propagated by tissue culture.

Genetic resources and breeding

No substantial germplasm collections of A. malaccensis and A. zerumbet are known to exist.

Prospects

In South-East Asia A. malaccensis and A. zerumbet are used to a very limited extent only for their essential oil and as medicinal plants. Since knowledge of their chemical composition, ecological requirements and cultivation is still very limited, their future use and importance are hard to predict. They are likely to remain of some importance as ornamentals.

Literature

• Burtt, B.L. & Smith, R.M., 1972. Key species in the taxonomic history of Zingiberaceae. Notes from the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh 31: 177-227.
• Darwis, S.N., Madjo Indo, A.B.D. & Hasiyah, S., 1991. Tumbuhan obat famili Zingiberaceae [Medicinal plants of the family Zingiberaceae]. Pusat Penelitian dan Pengembangan Tanaman Industri, Bogor, Indonesia. pp. 19-20.
• Dung, N.X., Chinh, T.D., Rang, D.D. & Leclercq, P.A., 1994. Volatile constituents of the seed and fruit skin oils of Catimbium latilabre (Ridl.) Holtt. from Vietnam. Journal of Essential Oil Research 6: 541-543.
• Fujita, T., Nishimura, H., Kaburagi, K. & Mizutani, J., 1994. Plant growth inhibiting alpha-pyrones from Alpinia speciosa. Phytochemistry 36: 23-27.
• Holttum, R.E., 1971. The Zingiberaceae of the Malay Peninsula. The Gardens' Bulletin Singapore 13: 1-248, particularly pp. 149-156.
• Hsu, S.Y., Lin, M.H., Lin, L.C. & Chou, C.J., 1994. Toxicologic studies of dihydro-5,6-dehydrokawain and 5,6-dehydrokawain. Planta Medica 60: 88-90.
• Itokawa, H., Morita, M. & Mitashi, S., 1981. Phenolic compounds from the rhizomes of Alpinia speciosa. Phytochemistry 20: 2503-2306.
• Prudent, D., Périneau, F., Bessière, J.M. & Michel, G., 1993. Chemical analysis, bacteriostatic and fungistatic properties of the essential oil of the Atoumau from Martinique (Alpinia speciosa K. Schum.). Journal of Essential Oil Research 5: 255-264.
• Smith, R.M., 1990. Alpinia (Zingiberaceae): a proposed new infrageneric classification. Edinburgh Journal of Botany 47: 1-75.
• Zhu, L.F., Li, Y.H., Li, B.L., Lu, B.Y. & Xia, N.H., 1993. Aromatic plants and essential constituents. South China Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences. Hai Feng Publishing Company. Chinese National Node for APINMAP, China. p. 188.

Authors

N. Mulyati Rahayu & Halijah Ibrahim