Agave cantala (PROSEA)

Plant Resources of South-East Asia Introduction

List of species

Agave cantala Roxb.

Protologue: Hort. bengal.: 25 (1814).

Family: Agavaceae

Chromosome number: 2n= 90 (triploid)

Synonyms

Agave cantula Roxb. (1832), A . rumphii Jacobi (1865), A. candalabrum Tod. (1877 or 1878).

Vernacular names

• Cantala, maguey, Bombay hemp (En)
• Indonesia: nanas sabrang (general, Javanese), nanas kosta (general), danas sabrang (Sundanese)
• Philippines: maguey, magai, pita (Cebu Bisaya)
• Vietnam: dửa sợi nạc, dửa sợi gai.

Origin and geographic distribution

Cantala almost certainly originated in Mexico, where it is now rare. It was brought by the Spanish from Mexico to the Philippines, Indonesia and Malaysia, where it later evolved into a fibre crop. Cantala fibre industries developed in the 19th Century in Indonesia and the Philippines. Cantala was introduced by European traders into southern Asia, specifically India, where it was planted initially as a hedge and fence plant and to control erosion in some areas. Only later did it become a source of fibre. It naturalized in tropical Asia centuries ago and is now common in South and South-East Asia from India to the Philippines. Cantala is also cultivated as a fibre plant in the Bahamas and grows in Pakistan, Iran (uncommonly), Tanzania and Fernando Po.

Uses

Cantala leaves are a source of fibre, which is known as "cantala", "kantala" or "cantula" fibre and locally as "Manila maguey", "Manila aloe", "Philippine maguey" (Philippines), "Java sisal" (Indonesia), "Indian sisal" and "Bombay aloe" (India). It belongs to the "hard fibres" of commerce, together with e.g. abaca ( Musa textilis Née) and sisal ( A. sisalana Perrine). Cantala fibre is made into baskets, hammocks, bags, sandals, carpets, rugs, doormats, sacks and cordage, of which binder twine is the most important. The fibre has also been used in fishing gear. In the Philippines cantala fibre is usually blended with abaca fibre in the manufacture of ropes, carpets, binder twine and fishing nets, and also of slippers, flowers and other decorative items. It has been used for pulp manufacturing, but because of supply problems production was short-lived.

For centuries cantala has served in Java (Indonesia) as hedges to protect homesteads or fields from grazing animals. The shoot buds, cut into pieces, are eaten as a cooked vegetable in Java. In Mexico cantala is cultivated for the production of the alcoholic drink "pulque" and fleshy leaves are also used as fodder.

Production and international trade

Cantala production is mainly concentrated in the Philippines, Indonesia and India. In the early part of the 20th Century, cantala was grown throughout northern Luzon and western Visayas in the Philippines, where yearly production of cantala fibre reached 19 000 t, of which 14 000 t was exported. Demand for cantala fibre was considerable during the Second World War. In the second half of the 20th Century, low cantala prices and other factors such as low yields and difficulties in handling the crop due to the prickly leaves, led to a decline in the production of cantala fibre as farmers shifted to more profitable crops. The development and use of other natural fibres and synthetics for the manufacture of cordage products were important factors in this decline. The area under cantala in the Philippines decreased from 1200 ha in 1991 to about 500 ha in 2000 (300 ha in Bohol, 100 ha in Cebu and 100 ha in Ilocos). The fibre production decreased from 159 t in 1991 to 25 t in 2000, mainly from Pangasinan (Ilocos). The decline since 1991 has been attributed to the prohibition of seawater-retting to reduce pollution, the low price offered by buyers and the low productivity of old plantations needing rehabilitation. The average annual production in 1996-2000 was about 32 t, most of which was used for processing into cordage and fibre craft within the country. In 1998 and 1999 some cantala fibre was exported from the Philippines: 3 and 4 t, respectively, mainly to the United Kingdom and the United States. In 1987-1990 cantala pulp was exported from the Philippines to Japan, Taiwan, Germany and Belgium.

In Indonesia cantala has been grown in Java by smallholders since the end of the 17th Century and on estates since the beginning of the 19th Century, but it was soon outstripped by sisal. In the first half of the 20th Century cantala was grown both on estates in Java, for export, and by smallholders in Java and Madura, mainly for local use. In the 1930s the average estate production in Java was 3000-6000 t cantala fibre per year, from 4500-5000 ha. No recent production and trade statistics for Indonesia or India are available.

Properties

Cantala leaves, like those of other Agave species, contain 2 types of fibres: mechanical fibres, mainly concentrated in the peripheral zone beneath the epidermis, and ribbon fibres, associated with the vascular bundles and more strongly developed in the median line. The fibre bundles in the peripheral zone of the leaf are horseshoe-shaped in other Agave species, but more irregularly oval in A. cantala . Cantala leaves yield 3-6% of a white fibre. The fibre strands may be over 1 m long. The ultimate fibre cells are (1.0-)2.4(-5.0) mm long, with a diameter of (16-)20-30(-37) μm, a lumen width of (4-)11(-17) μm and a cell wall thickness of (6-)8(-10) μm. The Runkel ratio is (1.15-)1.35(-2.87). The fibre contains approximately 64-71% α-cellulose, 7-17% lignin and 1-2% ash. Cottonized cantala fibre can be blended with acrylic or polyester fibre and spun into industrial yarns used in the production of, for example, wall-coverings, upholstery and bags. Cantala fibre can be pulped for the production of, for instance, wrapping paper, heavy-duty bags and wallboards.

Cantala leaves contain steroidal saponins (glycosides of sapogenins) based on sapogenins such as hecogenin, tigogenin, neotigogenin, β-sitosterol, gitogenin, chlorogenin and manogenin. Hecogenin can be used as a precursor in the partial synthesis of corticosteroids, but tigogenin is considered a contaminant of hecogenin. The hecogenin content of waste material after fibre extraction of cantala leaves is 0.3-0.5%. The fruits contain hecogenin, gitogenin and tigogenin. The hecogenin-based saponin cantalasaponin-2 from the stolons, the tigogenin-based saponin cantalasaponin-7 from the leaves, and a chlorogenin-based glycoside from the inflorescence have shown molluscicidal activity against the schistosomiasis vector Biomphalaria glabrata . Cantalasaponin-1 (a hongguanggenin-based glycoside) from the stolons significantly inhibited the growth of human cervical carcinoma cells. An acetone extract of the leaves has shown weak insecticidal effects against the diamondback moth ( Plutella xylostella ). Cantala reportedly has piscicidal properties.

Adulterations and substitutes

The main competitor for cantala is sisal. Cantala fibre is finer, whiter, more supple and more suitable for spinning than sisal, but less strong. Furthermore, the fibre yield of cantala is lower than that of sisal, the prickly leaves of cantala make handling more difficult, and cantala leaves are harder to decorticate. In the Philippines sisal is imported as a substitute for locally produced cantala.

Description

A robust, monocarpic, xerophytic perennial herb, 4-8.5 m tall when flowering, producing subterraneous stolons (rhizomes) and suckers, and numerous, crowded leaves in a rosette; stem 30-60 cm long. Leaves sessile, often subrecurved, linear-lanceolate, 1-2 m × 6-10 cm, thin, widest above the middle, channelled towards the base, margins straight with erect black spines 3-6 mm long of which the tips are upcurved, spines 2-3 cm apart but reduced or lacking toward apex, apex ending in a sharp black spine up to 2.5 cm long, flat to concave-convex, dark blue-green, rough to the touch below, young leaves firmly appressed against each other (initially cylindrically inrolled) leaving impressions. Inflorescence a panicle on long peduncle, 3.5-8 m long, many-flowered; branches spreading, more or less flattened; flowers 6-8 cm long on short pedicel, protandrous, rich in nectar; perianth funnel-shaped, separated from the inferior ovary by a constriction, widened at the apex, with 6 equal lobes; tube 12-17 mm × 15 mm, grooved; lobes oblong to linear-spatulate, 2.5-3 cm long, yellow-green, tinged purplish or reddish, on the inside of the apex with a tuft of hairs; stamens 6, inserted above the middle of the tube, filaments 5 cm long, anthers slender, purplish; ovary conical but 6-ribbed, 3-4 cm long. Fruit not well known, apparently very rarely produced. After anthesis numerous bulbils are produced on the inflorescence.

Growth and development

Cantala has a life cycle of 6-15(-25) years and it produces about 250 leaves during its lifetime. It develops a long flowering shoot ("pole") towards the end of its life cycle. In Java flowering ("poling") may occur any time of the year. Bulbils are copiously produced in the inflorescence after anthesis. After the production of flowers and bulbils the entire plant dies. Cantala develops many more suckers than sisal.

Other botanical information

Cantala can easily be distinguished from sisal and henequen ( Agave fourcroydes Lem.) by the upwards curving spines on the leaf margins and the long black terminal spine, which make the plant difficult to handle. It can further be recognized by its thin, long, narrow, weak leaves, which are frequently reflexed above the middle, and large, green-purplish flowers in broad, widely spreading and slenderly peduncled panicles. Plants used for hedge in Honduras, with shorter and sturdier leaves with more robust terminal spines and shorter flowers, have been classified as A. cantala Roxb. var. acuispina (Trel.) Gentry (synonym: A. acuispina Trel.). Some authors consider the name A. cantala Roxb. from 1814 as a "nomen nudum" and prefer A. cantula Roxb. from 1832 as the correct name.

Ecology

Cantala can be grown in a range of tropical climates, with an annual rainfall up to 2500 mm, but it grows best in a semi-arid tropical climate. In Java it can be grown up to 1500 m altitude. It grows on any well-drained soil, but does best on limestone soils. Although it is claimed to tolerate wet climates and soils better than sisal and henequen, it is sensitive to water logging, which results in stunted growth and destruction of the plant.

Propagation and planting

Cantala can be propagated vegetatively by means of suckers or bulbils. In the Philippines and Indonesia suckers are the preferred planting material, because mature leaves of plants raised from suckers yield more fibre than those of plants raised from bulbils and leaf production in the first 3 years after planting is higher. Suckers are usually planted directly in the field, but bulbils are first grown in a nursery and planted out when the plants are at least 20-30 cm tall. Adequate spacing is important because it allows for easier cultivation, weeding and harvesting and prevents leaves from touching each other when fully grown. In the Philippines planting distances are generally (1-)1.5(-3) m between plants and (1.5-)2.5(-3) m between single rows or 2 m × 2.5 m between double rows. The plants are placed in holes on sloping and rocky soils and in furrows on clay and sandy soils. In Indonesia 2 methods of spacing have been followed: the first with 0.9 m between plants within rows, 0.3 m between the 2 rows forming a double row and 2.5-3 m between sets of double rows; the second with 1.2 m between plants within rows, 0.3 m between the 2 staggered rows in the double row and 2.5-3 m between sets of double rows. If the area for planting is covered with underbrush, weeds or secondary forest, clearing is necessary, but intensive land preparation is not required. In the Philippines sometimes only furrows are made and the land is normally not ploughed before planting. In commercial plantations, however, the field is ploughed and harrowed and planting materials are set in furrows. Cantala may be planted in arid and rocky soils without initial soil tillage but plant growth will not be as fast or vigorous.

A procedure for rapid in vitro propagation of cantala has been developed using explants from stolon plantlets. The explants were cultured on Murashige and Skoog (MS) basal medium containing 2% sucrose, 10% coconut water and 0.8% agar. The addition of 0.075 mg/l naphtalene acetic acid (NAA), 0.1 mg/l indolylbutyric acid (IBA) and 0.5 mg/l kinetin resulted in an extensive proliferation of multiple shoot primordia, which were subcultured on the same medium. The shoots were rooted on hormone-free MS medium.

Husbandry

In the Philippines ploughing the soil once or twice during the first year of plant establishment of cantala is recommended to prevent weeds from crowding and shading the plants. Weeding can also be done with a hoe or a "bolo". It is better to remove most suckers (retaining only 1 or 2) because they make harvesting more difficult. Though cantala will grow in almost any soil, fertilizer application usually improves growth. A general recommendation in the Philippines is to apply annually 12-18 kg N, 8-12 kg P and 20-30 kg K per hectare. Cantala needs less K than sisal: in Indonesia cantala remained healthy on soils where sisal showed K-deficiency symptoms. Adding compost or waste material from the decorticating process to improve the organic content of the soil is recommended.

Diseases and pest Cantala is not seriously affected by diseases or pests. Scale insects ( Aspidiotus spp.) and mealy bugs infest cantala but do not cause serious damage and can be easily controlled by chemical insecticides. In Central Java cantala has been affected, especially in the dry period, by the coccus Pinnaspis aspidistrae , causing leaf death.

Harvesting

The first harvest of cantala raised from suckers takes place (1-)2-3(-4) years after planting. When bulbils are used as planting material, the first harvest is 9-12 months later. In Indonesia it is common to harvest twice a year, but in the Philippines harvesting is usually only once a year or even only once in 2, 3 or more years. Harvesting generally continues until 7-10 years after planting and stops when the plants become generative and the newly unfolded leaves become shorter. In the Philippines harvesting usually begins in November and ends in June of the following year but it may also be done throughout the year. A sharp knife is used to cut the lowest and most mature leaves at not less than 2-3 cm from the stem. In general 6-8 leaves are retained on the plant. After harvesting, the terminal and marginal spines of the leaves are trimmed and 20-50 leaves are tied together in bundles before transport for further processing.

Yield

Cantala yields depend on many factors but (10-)25-30(-35) leaves per plant per year can be harvested in the Philippines, or 30-80 leaves when the plants are cut every other year. It is estimated that 1000 mature, average-sized leaves produce 18-22 kg of dry fibre. If the retting method is used, up to about 3 t of fibre per hectare per year can be obtained, and with decortication up to about 2 t. Annual fibre yield estimates for Indonesia range from 1.5-5 t/ha.

Handling after harvest

Cantala fibre is extracted from the leaves either by retting or by decortication. In the Philippines retting is traditionally done in fresh- or salt water, in tanks or alongside rivers or creeks. Leaves to be retted in salt water are split lengthwise into 2 or 4 pieces, whereas those to be retted in fresh water are split into sections 1-2 cm wide, because retting in fresh water is much slower. The leaf pieces are retted in bundles for 15 days in salt water or 20-30 days in fresh water, but the optimum retting period varies according to the time of the year and the size of the bundles. When the leaves have decomposed sufficiently, they are usually pounded with a piece of wood and the fibres are washed, dried and baled. In the Philippines retting in sea water is now prohibited to reduce pollution of beaches. In India the leaves are split into thin strips, which are partly dried and subsequently retted, after which they are beaten, and the extracted fibre washed and dried.

Extraction with decorticators is faster and gives fibre of superior quality and lighter colour, which can be made into higher grade cordage. The extracted fibres are washed and dried. In Indonesia cantala leaves are decorticated mechanically with "raspadors" or by decorticators also used for sisal fibre extraction. These machines are not as efficient as when used for sisal; 25% of the raw fibre is lost and the fibre strands are inadequately cleaned.

A grading system in the Philippines classifies fibres as: MR-1 ("Maguey 1"), very clean, with a high strength and dull white colour; MR-2 ("Maguey 2"), fairly clean, but with many scales and some leaf parts, and with an average strength and off-white colour; MR-3 ("Maguey 3"), uncleaned, weak and light brown coloured, usually all as a result of excessive retting and insufficient washing and drying; MR-Y ("Maguey Damaged"), very low quality fibre with excessive discolouration and very low strength, due to overretting, insufficient retting or improper decortication; MR-O ("Maguey String"), twisted or knotted strands; and MR-T ("Maguey Tow"), very short or tangled fibres. Length designations are: Long (1 m and longer); Normal (0.6-1.0 m); Short (0.4-0.6 m) and Very Short or Tow (under 0.4 m).

Genetic resources and breeding

A. cantala has a narrow (clonal) genetic base and offers little opportunity for breeding and selection. Seed is not often formed, but by pruning the roots and cutting back the inflorescence, viable seeds have been obtained in Indonesia, both after selfing and after crossing with sisal. No germplasm collections of A. cantala are known to exist.

Prospects

The production of cantala in South-East Asian countries such as the Philippines and Indonesia is steadily declining due to factors such as the low price of cantala fibre and the increasing use of synthetics which has led to a reduction in demand for natural fibres. In the Philippines locally produced cantala fibre is being replaced by imported sisal. Unless new markets and demand for the fibre and its products develop, the prospects for the revival of the cantala industries in this region are bleak.

Literature

• Binh, L.T., Muoi, L.T., Oanh, H.T., Thang, T.D. & Phong, D.T., 1990. Rapid propagation of agave by in vitro tissue culture. Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture 23(1): 67-70.
• Dimayuga, E.R., Gianan, C.P., Macapuso, S.O., Navalta, E.G. & Soriano, C.C.J., 1981. A study on abaca substitutes. Abaca Industry Development Authority, the Philippines. pp. 51-55.
• Fiber Industry Development Authority (FIDA), no date. Philippine fibers and their characteristics. FIDA, Makati, the Philippines.
• Fiber Industry Development Authority (FIDA), no date. Maguey and its cultivation. FIDA, Makati, the Philippines. 5 pp.
• Fiber Industry Development Authority (FIDA), 2001. Philippine maguey industry. FIDA, Makati, the Philippines. 9 pp.
• Gentry, H.S., 1982. Agaves of continental North America. The University of Arizona Press, Tucson, Arizona, United States. pp. 3-5, 568-571.
• Holthuis, J.E. & van Hall, C.J.J., 1950. Sisal, cantala en manillahennep [Sisal, cantala and Manila hemp]. In: van Hall, C.J.J. & van de Koppel, C. (Editors): De landbouw in de Indische Archipel [Agriculture in the Indonesian Archipelago]. Vol. 3. W. van Hoeve, 's-Gravenhage, the Netherlands. pp. 103-178.
• Kirby, R.H., 1963. Vegetable fibres: botany, cultivation and utilization. Leonard Hill, London, United Kingdom & Interscience Publishers, New York, United States. pp. 217-264.
• Uniyal, G.C., Agrawal, P.K., Thakur, R.S. & Sati, O.P., 1990. Steroidal glycosides from Agave cantala. Phytochemistry 29(3): 937-940.
• Wienk, J.F., 1995. Sisal and relatives. In: Smartt, J. & Simmonds, N.W. (Editors): Evolution of crop plants. 2nd Edition. Longman, Harlow, United Kingdom. pp. 4-8.

Authors

B.I. Utomo, K.R. Dahal & B.E. Umali