Stemona tuberosa (PROSEA)

Plant Resources of South-East Asia Introduction

List of species

Stemona tuberosa Lour.

Protologue: Fl. cochinch. 1: 404 (1790).

Family: Stemonaceae

Chromosome number: 2n= unknown

Stemona tuberosa Lour. - 1, leafy stem; 2, inflorescence, the peduncle partly fused with the petiole; 3, dehisced fruit; 4, tuberous roots

Synonyms

• Roxburghia gloriosoides Roxb. (1795),
• Roxburghia gloriosa Pers. (1805),
• Stemona moluccana (Blume) C.H. Wight (1896).

Vernacular names

• Indonesia: kanyalut (Moluccas), ngabalo (North Halmahera), isoratu (Ternate)
• Thailand: non taai yaak
• Vietnam: bách bộ, củ ba mươi, dây dẹt ác.

Origin and geographic distribution

S. tuberosa is found from continental South-East Asia, Hainan and Taiwan throughout Malesia from the Philippines southward to the Lesser Sunda Islands, the Moluccas and Papua.

Uses

The tuberous roots of various Stemona are used throughout South-East Asia, China and Japan as insecticides and therapeutical agents (especially for coughs). In South-East Asia, S. tuberosa is by far the most important species. In the Moluccas the ground fresh tuberous roots are used to repel lice from body and clothing. In Thailand, the tuberous roots, crushed and soaked in water, are topically applied to treat scabies and kill head lice. In Vietnamese folk medicine the tuberous roots are used internally as an antitussive and anthelmintic, and externally as an insecticide. As an anthelmintic it is applied as an enema or as a decoction in combination with a purgative.

S. javanica (Kunth) Engler (synonym Stemona asperula J.J. Smith) from the south coast of Java, the Moluccas and New Guinea is only occasionally used medicinally in the Moluccas. The tuberous roots are used as a fish poison and an extract from the stem is given as a drink after childbirth for purification. In the Central Province (Papua New Guinea) crushed leaves of S. australiana (Benth.) C.H. Wright are used to treat snakebite. In Burma (Myanmar), the tuberous roots of S. burkillii Prain are used as an insecticide. In Thailand, the tuberous roots of S. burkillii, S. tuberosa or S. collinsae Craib (a low erect herb), and probably also S. curtisii Hook.f. (a tall climber) are used indiscriminately to treat skin diseases. The root of S. phyllantha Gagnep. is applied as a shampoo to kill head lice.

Production and international trade

Although Stemona tuberous roots figure in prescriptions for herbal medicine traded worldwide, no trade statistics are available.

Properties

The tuberous roots of various Stemona species are known for their presence of series of alkaloids. The tuberous roots of S. tuberosa are reported to contain stemonine, bisdehydro-stemonine, stemonidine, stemotinine, isostemotinine, tuberostemonine, bisdehydro-tuberostemonine, tuberostemonone, tuberostemonol, neotuberostemonine and bisdehydro-neotuberostemonine. In addition, 3-hydroxyflavone and 3 bibenzyls have also been isolated: 3-hydroxy-2',5-dimethoxy-2-methylbibenzyl, 3,5-dihydroxy-2'-methoxy-4-methylbibenzyl and 3,5-dihydroxy-4-methoxy-4-methylbibenzyl. The root of S. japonica Franch. & Savigny furthermore contains the alkaloids neostemonine, bisdehydro-neostemonine, bisdehydro-protostemonine, isoprotostemonine and tuberostemonine.

The effects of tuberostemonine on the motility of parasitic helminths and isolated frog rectus and mouse ileum were studied in vitro. Tuberostemonine (2 × 10^-5M) paralyzed the motility of the helmint Angiostrongylus cantonensis, and at a concentration of 6.7 × 10^-5 M showed contractive effects on the motility of Dipylidium caninum and Fasciola hepatica. However, treatment with the alkaloid at 4.8 × 10^-4 M had little effect on the motility of Schistosoma japonicum. Tuberostemonine (6.7 × 10^-5 M) paralyzed the motility of the mouse isolated ileum preparation, and at concentrations of 6.7 × 10^-7 - 6.7 × 10^-6 M, stimulated the twitch response induced by guanidine in the frog isolated rectus preparation. Furthermore, both eserine and tuberostemonine acted antagonistically on all preparations with the exception of Schistosoma japonicum, and both tuberostemonine and strychnine were antagonistic in isolated host tissues, whereas these compounds acted similarly on parasitic helminths. It is therefore suggested that some of the experiential effects of the crude extracts of Stemona, especially the anthelmintic effects, are caused through the action of tuberostemonine on parasitic helminths and host tissues.

At the crayfish neuromuscular junction, tuberostemonine reduced the amplitude of both the excitatory junctional potential (e.j.p.) and the glutamate response in a dose-dependent manner at concentrations above 0.1 mM. Tuberostemonine acted presynaptically on the crayfish neuromuscular junction to reduce a quantal content of extracellularly recorded e.j.p.s, and post-synaptically to reduce their unit size. The decay of the excitatory synaptic current was accelerated by tuberostemonine. The gradual decline of the successive glutamate currents induced by a train was facilitated by the presence of tuberostemonine even in the muscle fibre pre-treated with concanavalin A. The rate of recovery from the refractory form of the glutamate receptor to the free reactive one was slightly affected by tuberostemonine when it was determined by using a paired pulse method. The inhibitory action of tuberostemonine on glutamate responses was voltage-dependent and hyperpolarization increased the drug action. These results indicate that tuberostemonine acts in part as an open-channel blocker at the crayfish neuromuscular junction.

A water extract of the tuberous roots of S. sessilifolia Franch. & Savigny shows a relaxation effect on the airway smooth muscles. It concentration-dependently reduced contractions in guinea-pig isolated tracheal preparations acting on the muscarinic receptors and dihydropyridine binding sites.

An aqueous extract of the tuberous roots of S. tuberosa showed strong larvicidal activity against the mosquitos Aedes aegypti, Anopheles maculatus and Culex quinquefasciatus. In addition, a crude ethanol extract from the tuberous roots of S. collinsae has a strong larvicidal activity against the cattle tick Boophilus microplus. However, information on its efficacy against the adult is somewhat contradictory. Effectiveness of the crude ethanol extract against the third instar larvae of the diamond-back moth was 100% at 20 mg/ml under laboratory conditions.

Reports on the presence of rotenoids in Stemona tuberous roots are probably based on the papilionaceous substitute Clitoria hanceana Hemsl. (synonym Clitoria macrophylla auct. non Wallich ex Benth.), an erect treelet with tuberous roots, or the climbing herbaceous Clitoria macrophylla Wallich ex Benth. Information may be based on the Thai crude drug "non-taai-yaak" that contains the tuberous roots of the above-mentioned Clitoria or tuberous roots of S. burkillii, S. collinsae or S. tuberosa and probably also S. curtisii.

Description

• A glabrous, perennial, herbaceous twiner to 4(-10) m long; roots forming a fascicle of many thick, fleshy, yellow or black tuberous roots up to 15-20 cm long.
• Leaves opposite, those at the lower part of shoots often alternate, ovate or broadly ovate, 9-20 cm × 3-14 cm, base cordate, apex acuminate, veins 9-13, all basal; petiole 1.5-7 cm long, not sheathing; stipules absent.
• Inflorescence axillary, racemose, (1-)2-6-flowered; peduncle 2-8 cm long, free or fused with the petiole for 0.5-3 cm; bracts 0.5-1.5 cm long.
• Flowers 4-merous, pedicel 0.5-3 cm long, tepals in 2 rows of 2 tepals, free, valvate, persistent, 2.5-4 cm × 0.4-1 cm, outside green or yellowish with dark green or purple stripes, inside brown or brown-red with red stripes; stamens 4, 2.5-4 cm long, filaments short, anthers 0.8-1.5 cm long, appendix of anthers 5-12 mm long, tips fused, purple; ovary superior; style absent.
• Fruit a pendulous capsule, 4-7 cm × 1.5-2 cm, opening with 2 valves, 10-20-seeded.
• Seed 1-1.7 cm long, with an acumen about 4 mm long, basally inserted, dangling on a 8 mm long funicle, the base surrounded by a vesicular aril.

Growth and development

S. tuberosa can be found flowering and fruiting throughout the year; locally some seasonality can be observed. Flowers have an unpleasant smell and are visited by small flies belonging to the family Longhaeidae.

Other botanical information

Stemona comprises about 20-25 species and is found from continental Asia and Japan throughout Malesia to northern Australia. The species mostly prefer a seasonal climate and can be found in rather dry locations, generally not very far from the coast, at altitudes below 500 m. In S. tuberosa 2 varieties can be distinguished, based on the peduncle of the inflorescence being fused with the petiole or not. Var. tuberosa is found in continental South-East Asia, the Philippines, Flores and Ambon (collected once); var. ternatensis (J.J. Smith) Duyfjes is found in the Philippines, Lesser Sunda Islands, the Moluccas and Papua. The flowers of S. collinsae (a low erect herb) and S. curtisii (a tall climber) are identical.

Ecology

S. tuberosa is found in beach vegetation, coastal forest, undergrowth in thick scrub, primary forest along rivers and fields at low altitudes not far from the coast, on loamy soils and sandy tuff.

Harvesting

The tuberous roots of S. tuberosa can be collected throughout the year, by uprooting the plant. However, tuberous roots are generally harvested from the time shoots start wilting until the new shoots appear.

Yield

Elaborate sampling for stemona alkaloid content of various Stemona species in China revealed a considerable variation between species and regional variation within species. Alkaloid content for S. tuberosa ranged from 0.5-3.1%.

Handling after harvest

After uprooting the tuberous roots of S. tuberosa are washed, proximal and distal ends are removed and immersed in boiling water for several minutes. They are dried for storage purposes and later use.

Genetic resources and breeding

S. tuberosa is widespread throughout South-East Asia, and can be found in disturbed open habitats. However, locally, populations may be suffering from overexploitation.

Prospects

The alkaloids from Stemona show interesting activities, especially in the field of parasitic infections of humans and livestock. Since there is an ever growing need for effective anthelmintics, with an emphasis on tropical regions, Stemona merits further research to evaluate and develop this potential for the region. In addition, the effects of S. sessilifolia on the isolated airway smooth muscles may also be of interest for additional research.

Literature

• Duyfjes, B.E.E., 1993. Stemonaceae. In: Kalkman, C., Kirkup, D.W., Nooteboom, H.P., Stevens, P.F. & de Wilde, W.J.J.O. (Editors): Flora Malesiana. Series 1, Vol. 11. Rijksherbarium/Hortus Botanicus, Leiden, the Netherlands. pp. 399-409.
• Liao, J.F., Shi, C.C., Chen, S.Y., Fu, Y.T. & Chen, C.F., 1997. Spasmolytic effect of water extract of Stemonae radix on the guinea-pig tracheal smooth muscle in vitro. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 57(1): 57-62.
• Nguyen Nghia Thin, 1993. Preliminary study of Ethnopharmacology in Luong Son, Ha Son Binh province, Vietnam. Revue Pharmaceutique: 52-66.
• Shinozaki, H. & Ishida, M., 1985. Inhibitory actions of tuberostemonine on the excitatory transmission at the crayfish neuromuscular junction. Brain Research 334(1): 33-40.
• Terada, M., Sano, M., Ishii, A.I., Kino, H., Fukushima, S. & Noro, T., 1982. Studies on chemotherapy of parasitic helminths (III). Effects of tuberostemonine from Stemona japonica on the motility of parasitic helminths and isolated host tissues. Nippon Yakurigaku Zasshi 79(2): 93-103. (in Japanese)
• Zhao, W., Qin, G., Ye, Y., Xu, R. & Le, X., 1995. Bibenzyls from Stemona tuberosa. Phytochemistry 38(3): 711-713.

Other selected sources

• [135] Burkill, I.H., 1966. A dictionary of the economic products of the Malay Peninsula. Revised reprint. 2 volumes. Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Vol. 1 (A—H) pp. 1—1240, Vol. 2 (I—Z) pp. 1241—2444.
• [264] Doan Thi Nhu, Nguyen Thuong Thuc, Do Huy Bich & Vu Thuy Huyen (Editors), 1990. Les plantes médicinales au Vietnam. Livre 1. Médicine traditionelle et pharmacopée [The medicinal plants of Vietnam. Volume 1. Traditional medicine and pharmacopoeia]. Agence de coopération Culturelle et Technique, Paris, France. 201 pp.
• [407] Heyne, K., 1950. De nuttige planten van Indonesië [The useful plants of Indonesia]. 3rd Edition. 2 volumes. W. van Hoeve, 's-Gravenhage, the Netherlands/Bandung, Indonesia. 1660 + CCXLI pp.
• [483] Jansawan, W., Jittapalapong, S. & Jantaraj, N., 1993. Effect of Stemona collinsae extract against cattle ticks (Boophilus microplus). Kasetsart Journal, Natural Sciences 27(3): 336—340.
• [594] Lee, H.L. & Chiang, Y.F., 1994. Insecticidal activity of the herbal plant, Stemona tuberosa Lour. to mosquito larvae. Tropical Biomedicine 11(1): 87—89.
• [615] Lin, W.H., Ye, Y. & Xu, R.S., 1992. Chemical studies on new Stemona alkaloids IV: studies on new alkaloids from Stemona tuberosa. Journal of Natural Products 55(5): 571—576.
• [739] Nguyen Van Duong, 1993. Medicinal plants of Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos. Mekong Printing, Santa Ana, California, United States. 528 pp.
• [786] Perry, L.M., 1980. Medicinal plants of East and Southeast Asia. Attributed properties and uses. MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States & London, United Kingdom. 620 pp.
• [867] Saralamp, P., Chuakul, W., Temsiririrkkul, R. & Clayton, T. (Editors), 1996. Medicinal plants in Thailand. Vol. I. Department of Pharmaceutical Botany, Faculty of Pharmacy, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand. 219 pp.
• [1047] Vo Van Chi, 1997. Dictionary of medicinal plants of Vietnam. Hanoi Medical Publishing House, Hanoi, Vietnam. 1467 pp.
• [1107] Ye, Y., Qin, G.W. & Xu, R.S., 1994. Alkaloids from Stemona tuberosa. Phytochemistry 37(4): 1201—1203.

Authors

• Nguyen Nghia Thin