Kaempferia (PROSEA)

Plant Resources of South-East Asia Introduction

List of species

Kaempferia L.

Protologue: Sp. pl. 1: 2 (1753); Gen. pl. ed. 5: 3 (1754).

Family: Zingiberaceae

Chromosome number: x= 11, 12, 13, 14; K. angustifolia: 2n= 36, K. galanga: 2n= 54, K. rotunda: 2n= 44, 45, 54

• Kaempferia galanga L.,
• K. rotunda L.

• Galangal, kaempferia (En).

Kaempferia comprises about 40 species and occurs in India and Sri Lanka to Indo-China, Thailand and Malesia east to the Moluccas. Within Malesia some 7 species are present; Thailand has 15 species.

Rhizomes of various Kaempferia species are credited with stimulant, stomachic, carminative and similar properties, and are also used throughout South-East Asia to relieve headache. They are commonly applied in the treatment of abdominal disorders, apparently for their astringent properties. In Peninsular Malaysia and Indonesia the leaves and rhizomes are chewed as an expectorant for coughs and sore throat, or pounded and used in poultices or lotions; they are often an ingredient of children's medicines and tonics. In Indonesia, rhizomes of Kaempferia are a common ingredient of a multitude of "jamus". Rhizomes are applied externally as a "drawing" agent on boils and, mixed with oil, as a cicatrizant. Leaves and rhizomes of K. galanga are applied externally as a poultice to treat abdominal pains, and as an embrocation or sudorific to treat swellings, inflammations, and muscular rheumatism. Pounded rhizomes are also applied to traumatic injuries and nose bleeding. Mixed with rice flour, they are used in "beras kencur", a refreshing drink used as a sudorific. In the Philippines, the whole plant is applied as a remedy for cold. A decoction of rhizomes is a tonic, carminative, gargle, a remedy for dyspepsia and malarial chills, and given after childbirth. Rhizomes of K. rotunda and K. angustifolia are considered cooling. Rhizomes of K. galanga are well-known in Chinese medicine as a remedy for toothache or a wash to treat dandruff or scabs on the head.

Rhizomes of K. galanga and K. rotunda are also widely known as a flavouring for various dishes and rice; in Indonesia, leaves of K. galanga are used in a similar way. Rhizomes are also used in perfumery and as a means to preserve cloth from insects. In Indonesia, leaves of K. galanga and K. rotunda are eaten raw in "lalab" or cooked as a vegetable. Dried and ground rhizomes of K. galanga are also an ingredient of cosmetics, especially powders. Furthermore, rhizomes of K. galanga are used as an ingredient of a fermentation agent and in the production of "kretek" cigarettes. K. rotunda , and several other Kaempferia species, are often cultivated as an ornamental; the flowers of K. rotunda are fragrant. In Vietnam, rhizomes of K. angustifolia are chewed as a masticatory together with betel nuts.

The estimated area planted with K. galanga in Boyolali (Central Java) and West Pasaman (West Sumatra) in Indonesia is about 2000 ha, yielding at least 20 000 t of fresh rhizomes annually.

The roots of K. galanga contain 2.4-3.9% of an essential oil whose main constituents are about 25% ethyl cinnamate (cinnamic acid ethyl ester) and up to 30% methyl-p-methoxycinnamate (p-methoxycinnamic acid methyl ester).

The chloroform extract of K. galanga rhizome has been found to inhibit tonic contractions in the rat aorta induced by high K⁺ concentrations or phenylephrine, in a dose-dependent manner. It was suggested that the chloroform extract inhibits vascular smooth muscle contraction by inhibiting Ca²⁺ influx through both voltage and receptor-operated non-selective cation channels, and Ca²⁺ sensitivity of contractile elements. Ethyl-p-methoxy-trans-cinnamate isolated from K. galanga rhizomes, acted as a mono amine oxidase-inhibitor; such inhibitors are sometimes used as drugs to treat depression. In experiments on guineapigs, ethyl-p-methoxy-trans-cinnamate caused trachea and tracheal branches to dilate. This finding supports its traditional use in the treatment of asthma.

Furthermore, the ethanol extract of K. galanga showed cytotoxicity against human cervical carcinoma (HeLa) cells (CD₅₀ 10-30 μg/ml). K. galanga extracts showed amoebicidal activity in vitro against 3 Acanthamoeba species, the causative agents of granulomatous amoebic encephalitis and amoebic keratitis.

The larvicidal principles obtained from the methanolic extract of rhizomes of K. galanga are ethyl cinnamate, ethyl-p-methoxycinnamate, and p-methoxycinnamic acid. Two active metabolites, benzyl benzoate and the cyclohexane derivative crotepoxide, have been isolated from the rhizome of K. rotunda. Crotepoxide was active in the chronic feeding bioassay of larvae of Spodoptera littoralis (LC₅₀ 5.6 μg/cm). Finally, K. galanga also exhibits antifungal activity.

• Perennial, rhizomatous, short-stemmed herbs; rhizome sympodial, tuberous or cylindrical, fleshy; roots often bearing small tubers.
• Leaves usually few, distichous, simple, lower ones sheathing; sheath auriculate at apex; ligule small or absent; petiole short; blade usually broad, with fan-like venation.
• Inflorescence terminal; peduncle usually enclosed by the imbricating leaf-sheaths.
• Flowers arranged spirally on a discoid receptacle (the reduced rachis), solitary in the axil of a bract, bisexual, zygomorphic; bracteoles 1 or 2, small, 2-topped to divided almost to the base; calyx tubular, split for a short distance, unequally toothed, usually much shorter than the corolla tube; corolla tubular at base, with 3 subequal, usually linear lobes; staminodes 3, petaloid, the anterior one, called labellum, nearly flat, deeply bilobed, usually white or lilac, sometimes with a different colour towards the base, the 2 lateral ones spreading, often similar to the halves of the labellum; fertile stamen 1, filament very short or absent, anther not or hardly exserted, thecae parallel, dehiscing with longitudinal slits, connective (also called anther-crest) usually large, entire or lobed, often reflexed and filling the throat of the flower but not enfolding the style; ovary inferior, 3-locular with axillary placentation and few to many ovules, style 1, filiform with funnel-shaped stigma, held between the thecae.
• Fruit a thin-walled, dehiscent capsule.
• Seeds few to many, ellipsoidal to nearly globular, with a lacerate aril.

In Java, K. angustifolia flowers from October to January and in April, K. galanga in November and December, and K. rotunda in April and September to November. K. galanga can be induced to flower by a period of drought. Each flower opens for only one day. Pollination is by ants, flies and bees. Fruits are seldom formed.

Kaempferia belongs to the tribe Hedychieae and is closely related to Boesenbergia, Scaphochlamys and Haplochorema, from which it differs by its variably deeply 2-lobed bracteoles. All African species formerly included in Kaempferia have been attributed to a distinct genus called Siphonochilus. They differ amongst others in the position of their lateral inflorescences, absence of bracteoles and structure of the labellum.

In Kaempferia flowers the "petal-like" organs, the labellum and 2 lateral staminodes, are modified stamens that function as petals, a situation called homeosis. There seem to be two forms within K. galanga, a broad-leaved one and a narrow-leaved one. Both have been reported from Cambodia, Thailand and Java.

About 10 cultivars of K. galanga are currently distinguished in Indonesia with "Cileungsi Besar" the highest yielder.

Most Kaempferia species occur naturally in open forest, forest margins, and teak forest, at low altitudes. They easily escape from cultivation and can then be found in grassy waysides, lawns and waste places. They occur in both everwet and seasonal climates. K. galanga thrives best up to 1000 m altitude, in areas with an annual rainfall of 2000-4000 mm, but waterlogging causes damage. It can grow on various soils, from heavy vertisols to latosols and andosols, with clayey to silt-loamy texture, but it develops poorly on acid soils. K. galanga and K. rotunda grow best in fertile garden soil in shaded conditions.

Kaempferia can be propagated by rhizome pieces 2.5-4 cm long, with at least 2-3 buds; both the younger and older parts of rhizomes may be used. Rhizome cuttings may be kept for 1-2 weeks under dry, shaded conditions prior to planting at the beginning of the rainy season. K. galanga and K. rotunda can also be propagated by tissue culture using rhizome explants with vegetative buds. In Central Java K. galanga is usually planted in furrows 7.5-10 cm deep at 10-15 cm spacing. In West Sumatra it is planted in separate planting holes 5-7.5 cm deep at a spacing of 25-60 cm. In Java K. galanga is usually intercropped with groundnut and rice.

In K. galanga application of 15 t/ha manure proved to be most effective in increasing rhizome yield; higher doses, however, promoted the development of aerial parts only. It loses its leaves towards the east monsoon period and it is recommended to dig up the rhizome then to prevent fungal decay.

Pythium sp. has been observed in Central Java to cause rhizome soft rot of K. galanga, particularly under poor drainage conditions.

In Central Java K. galanga is harvested 6-18 months after planting, in West Sumatra after 18-24 months.

Fresh rhizome yields of K. galanga in Central Java are 6-15 t/ha, compared with 12-20 t/ha in West Sumatra. Yields as low as 1.2 t/ha have also been reported.

Rhizomes of K. galanga can be washed, sliced and dried for storage.

There are no germplasm collections and breeding programmes of Kaempferia.

In Indonesia most rhizomes of K. galanga are obtained from the wild. Since it is expected that K. galanga will be increasingly used in the rapidly developing Indonesian industries of traditional medicine and cosmetics, cultural practices need to be developed to meet this demand. In Thailand, K. galanga rhizomes are collected from the wild and from small-scale cultivation and exported to China. Further agronomic research may lead to market expansion.

• Holttum, R.E., 1950. The Zingiberaceae of the Malay Peninsula. Gardens' Bulletin, Singapore 13: 117-123.
• Juhaeti, T., Chairul & Harapini, M., 1992. Pertumbuhan, produksi dan kandungan komponen utama kencur yang ditanam pada musim kemarau [Growth, production and major constituents of the rhizomes of kencur grown during the dry season]. In: Nasution, R.E. et al. (Editors): Prosiding Seminar Hasil Penelitian dan Pengembangan Sumber Daya Hayati 1991/1992, Bogor, 6 Mei 1992 [Proceedings of the Seminar on Results of Research and Development in Biological Resources 1991/1992, Bogor, 6 May 1992]. Bogor, Puslitbang Biologi-LIPI. pp. 354-359.
• Kiuchi, F., Nakamura, N., Tsuda, Y., Kondo, K. & Yoshimura, H., 1988. Studies on crude drugs effective on visceral larva migrans II. Larvicidal principles in Kaempferiae Rhizoma. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 36(1): 412-415.
• Mackeen, M.M. et al., 1997. Antimicrobial and cytotoxic properties of some Malaysian traditional vegetables (ulam). International Journal of Pharmacognosy 35(3): 174-178.
• Mustafa, M.R., Mustafa, A.M. & Hashim, S., 1996. Vasorelaxant effects of the chloroform extract of Kaempferia galanga on smooth muscles of the rat aorta. Asia Pacific Journal of Pharmacology 11(3-4): 97-101.
• Noro, T. et al., 1983. Mono amine oxidate inhibitor from the rhizomes of Kaempferia galanga. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 31(8): 2708-2711.
• Nugroho, B.W., Schwarz, B., Wray, V. & Proksch, P., 1996. Insecticidal constituents from rhizomes of Zingiber cassumunar and Kaempferia rotunda. Phytochemistry 41(1): 129-132.
• Perry, L.M., 1980. Medicinal plants of East and Southeast Asia. Attributed properties and uses. The MIT Press. Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States & London, United Kingdom. p. 442.
• Sadikun, A., Asmawi, A.Z., Ean, U.L. & Rahman, A.A., 1987. The effect of Kaempferia galanga rhizome extract on superfused guinea pig tracheal chain and ileum preparation and mice hind paw edema. Proceedings of the 4th Annual Seminar of the Natural Products Group. pp. 2-12.
• Sudiarto, 1989. Kaempferia galanga L. in Central Java and West Sumatra. In: Siemonsma, J.S. & Wulijarni-Soetjipto, N. (Editors): Plant Resources of South-East Asia. Proceedings of the first PROSEA International Symposium, May 22-25, 1989, Jakarta, Indonesia. Pudoc, Wageningen, the Netherlands. pp. 306-308.

• Kaempferia angustifolia
• Kaempferia galanga
• Kaempferia rotunda

• Halijah Ibrahim