Jasminum (PROSEA)

Plant Resources of South-East Asia Introduction

List of species

Jasminum L.

Protologue: Sp. pl. 1: 7 (1753); Gen. pl. ed. 5: 7 (1754).

Family: Oleaceae

Chromosome number: x= 13;J. multiflorum,J. sambac: 2n= 26, 39

• Jasminum elongatum (Bergius) Willd.,
• J. multiflorum (Burm.f.) Andr.,
• J. sambac (L.) Aiton.

• Jasmine (En).
• Jasmin (Fr).

Jasminum consists of about 200 species, with approximately 90 species occurring in the Old World tropics. It comprises 52 indigenous species in the Malesian region. J. multiflorum and J. sambac have been cultivated since antiquity.

The flowers and leaves of several Jasminum species are used as a lactifuge in the Malesian region. Either the bruised flowers or a poultice of the leaves are applied to the breast. The flowers are also considered cooling and are soaked in water overnight; the fluid is used as a face wash. Poultices of the leaves of several species are used in the treatment of ulcers or skin complaints in general. The leaves are also employed as a mouthwash for inflamed gums and ulceration of the mucous membranes. Extracts of the roots of several species are used as febrifuges. A tincture made from the root of J. sambac is said to have very strong sedative, anaesthetic and vulnerary properties. Roots are used as poultices to treat sprains and fractures. A decoction of the roots or an infusion of the flowers is employed in pulmonary catarrh, bronchitis, and also asthma.

The flowers of J. grandiflorum L. and J. sambac are the traditional flavouring agents for jasmine tea. J. grandiflorum is widely cultivated in the tropics and subtropics, particularly for its essential oil, but also for its ornamental and medicinal properties.

In South-East Asia, the flowers of J. grandiflorum and J. sambac are produced for the local market only and no export data are available. In India, J. sambac is commercially cultivated for its essential oil. J. grandiflorum is commercially cultivated in Algeria, Morocco, Italy, Spain, Egypt, India and China for essential oil.

The fresh leaves and flowers of J. multiflorum have been reported to contain 4 secoiridoid lactones: jasmolactones A, B, C, and D. They all contain a bicyclic 2-oxo-oxepano (4,5-C) pyran ring system. The jasmolactones B and D have been found to possess coronary vasodilating and cardiotropic activities. Furthermore, five 10-hydroxyoleoside-type secoiridoid glycosides (probably derived from secologanin) have been isolated: 10-hydroxyoleuropein, 10-hydroxyligustroside, multifloroside, multiroside and 10-hydroxyoleoside-11-methylester. Two of them showed cardiotropic and coronary-dilating activities on preparations from isolated guinea-pig organs: multifloroside (≥ 1.5 μM and ≥ 3.7 μM, respectively) and 10-hydroxyoleuropein (both ≥ 9 μM).

Direct contact with bruised flowers of J. multiflorum in mice suppressed milk production and caused involution of the mammary gland. Exposure to the smell of the flowers alone produced similar, but less marked changes. In humans, the fresh flowers placed on the breasts of women who had just delivered, showed antigalactogogue and prolactin-inhibition activities.

An extract of the young shoots of J. subtriplinerve inhibited the growth of Staphylococcus aureus and S. haemolyticus. The whole plant, excluding the root, of J. sambac showed hypotensive activity and depressant activity on the central nervous system of mice.

Several terpenes (e.g. caryophyllene, menthene, jasminin and jasmone) and flavonoids (quercetin, rutin and isoquercetin) have been isolated from J. sambac flowers. The characteristics of the concrete of J. sambac flowers are: specific gravity (30°C) 0.8794, refractive index 1.4665 and melting point 46°C.

Jasmine absolute is frequently adulterated with synthetics, inferior quality absolutes and non-jasmine material. No substitute is able to duplicate the original accurately.

• Scandent shrubs or climbers.
• Leaves opposite (rarely alternate), seemingly simple (1-foliolate) or 3-9-foliolate, leaflets entire, stipules absent.
• Inflorescence a terminal or axillary 2-3-chotomous cyme or flowers solitary.
• Flowers bisexual, regular, usually heterodistylous, fragrant; calyx short, funnel- or bell-shaped with 4-10 linear lobes; corolla with a long narrow cylindrical tube and 4-14 imbricate lobes, white or yellow, outside often tinged with violet or almost entirely violet; stamens 2, inserted on the corolla tube, included or almost so, with short filaments, anthers large, ovoid or oblong, connective apiculate; ovary superior, 2-locular with 2 ovules per cell, style filiform, stigma oblong, 2-lobed.
• Fruit a 2-lobed berry with 2 seeds, or by abortion entire and 1-seeded.
• Seeds exalbuminous.
• Seedling with epigeal germination, paracotyledons thin, green, leaf-like and relatively long persistent.

In India J. sambac grown from layers will start flowering in the second year, but commercial harvest only commences in the third year, and best yields are obtained from the fifth year onwards. Profitable yields are obtained for up to 20-25 years. In India the flowering season lasts from March until September, with flowering peaking in April-July. In Java and Thailand flowering is more or less throughout the year with the highest production in November-December, whereas in Malaysia, J. sambac flowers throughout the year but fewer flowers are produced in the rainy season. Dispersal of seed is most likely by birds that eat the fruits.

Within the Oleaceae, Jasminum is placed in the subfamily Jasminoideae and the tribe Jasmineae together with Menodora from tropical and subtropical America and southern Africa. The common jasmine (J. officinale L.) is a native of the Sino-Himalayan region, but cultivated worldwide in many temperate regions; single-flowered and double-flowered forms exist. In Europe, common jasmine is cultivated commercially for perfume. In subtropical and tropical regions J. grandiflorum L. is widely cultivated for its essential oil and for its fresh flowers; in China and Java the flowers are used to flavour tea. In South-East Asia J. sambac is more important for its fresh flowers and essential oil.

Jasminum species occur from seashore habitats to high mountain tops and limestone locations, but most species prefer lowland and lower montane conditions. They are frequently found on forest edges as they do not tolerate deep shade. In general the Malesian species prefer well-drained light loams rich in organic matter with a plentiful supply of moisture. Though species may be cultivated in a wide range of soils, preference is given to slightly sandy loams which are easy to work.

Fruits and seeds are rarely produced by the ornamental Jasminum, and propagation is therefore almost exclusively by stem cuttings. The best time for vegetative propagation is during the rainy season when production of flowers tends to be lower and vegetative growth more prolific. Propagation of J. sambac is most successful when using hardwood cuttings with 5-6 buds, with sand as growing medium. In India layering of J. sambac is commonly practised; a small strip of bark is removed from the branch, which is bent down and partly buried to promote rooting. Propagation from leaf cuttings, consisting of a mature leaf, petiole and an axillary bud, is also possible. The cutting is soaked for about 24 hours in 20 ppm naphthalene acetic acid and then half immersed in the planting medium. After 1 month the roots have developed well; shoot formation follows 2-4 weeks later. In India plants are spaced at 2 m × 2 m giving 2500 plants/ha. Production of flowers increases by 170% if the density is increased to 10 000/plants/ha.

In commercial cultivation J. sambac is trained into bushes. In home gardens it is often trained on arbours. Pruning of J. sambac consists of heading back the bushes to about one third of the length of shoots, and thinning unwanted shoots or runners. Pruning should be done during the resting period of the crop and before new flushes emerge. When production of foliage is too prolific, some of the foliage should be selectively removed to promote flowering.

To obtain optimal flower production, J. sambac should be grown in full sun, with a regular supply of water and with farm manure applied twice a year during active vegetative growth. Application of nitrogen significantly increases flower production in J. sambac . Flowering can be regulated by applying cycocel (chlormequat) after moderate pruning; this shortens time to flowering, prolongs flowering and increases flower yields.

The bud worm Hendecasis duplifacialis is a pest of some consequence in J. sambac plantings.

Flowers open and are most scented at dusk. The content of essential oils increases considerably at the time of opening of the flowers. Flowers should preferably be harvested in the early morning. However, flower buds for garlands are usually picked in the late afternoon in India. In general, picked flower buds open 7-9 hours after harvesting. In Malaysia, flower buds are gathered in the morning for sale the same day as garlands or to be put in the hair. Strings of threaded flowers are sold per "hasta" (measurement from elbow to finger tips). For home use, buds are picked in the evening when they are about to burst.

In India the annual production of J. sambac flowers amounts to 10 t/ha, yielding 1.2-12 kg concrete. In Indonesia (Java) the monthly flower production per ha is 600 kg for November-December, 90-150 kg for January-June and 90 kg for July-October. Production figures per ha per day for J. grandiflorum in Java range from 50 kg in the rainy season to 15 kg in the dry season.

In Malesia the flowers of J. sambac are picked as fully developed buds. These are brought to the market as quickly as possible to maintain good quality, i.e. a fresh white colour without blemishes. The quality of the flowers can be improved by ice cooling at the time of harvesting and hydro cooling before packing. Flowerbuds can be stored in polyethylene bags at 10°C for up to 4 days without affecting quality or shelf life.

Perfume can be extracted by enfleurage using sesame oil as fragrance receptor, but at present jasmine flowers are usually extracted by solvents (e.g. petroleum ether, hexane or liquid carbondioxide) to obtain concrete which is subsequently distilled to produce jasmine absolute.

Few Jasminum species are widespread and common e.g. J. elongatum. Most species are endemic, sometimes with a very local distribution. The latter are more at risk in view of the continuing forest conversion. Although a considerable number of species are adapted to forest fringes, they do not adapt well in secondary forest settings.

The medicinal potential of the cardiotonic and coronary-dilating activities of the secoiridoids in leaves and flowers deserves further attention. The production of flowers for local consumption will remain an interesting market for small-scale growers. The prospects of plantations of J. sambac for production of the essential oil are limited, in view of the technology required and the world market prices.

• Abdullah, T.L., Ahmad, S.H. & Rejab, N.A., 1993. Determination of floral stages and packaging methods for prolonged storage of Jasminum multiflorum. In: Palevitch, D., Simon, J.E. & Mathé, A. (Editors): First world congress on medicinal and aromatic plants for human welfare WOCMAP: raw material production, product introduction. Acta Horticulturae 331: 325-329.
• Abraham, M., Devi, N.S. & Sheela, R., 1979. Inhibiting effect of jasmine flowers on lactation. Indian Journal of Medical Research 69: 88-92.
• Casyao, J.M., 1992. The botany of sampaguita, its production and potentials in industry: an overview. Philippine Technology Journal 17(2): 1-12.
• Jonard, R., 1989. Jasminum spp. (Jasmine). Micropropagation and the production of essential oils. In: Bajaj, Y.P.S. (Editor): Biotechnology in agriculture and forestry. Vol. 7. Medicinal and aromatic plants 2. Springer Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, London, Paris, Tokyo. pp. 315-331.
• Kiew, R., 1994. Name changes for Malaysian plants. Begonia wrayi (Begoniaceae) and Jasminum aemulum (Oleaceae). Malayan Nature Journal 47(3): 311-317.
• Kiew, R., 1994. Checklist of Jasminum (Oleaceae) in Malesia. Sandakania 5: 1-14.
• Kirtikar, K.R. & Basu, B.D., 1935. In: Blatter, E., Caius, J.F. & Mhaskar, K.S. (Editors): Indian medicinal plants. 2nd edition. L.H. Basu, Allahabad, India. pp. 1514-1526.
• Nambisan, K.M.P. & Krishnan, 1980. Gundumalli - the aromatic jasmine. Indian Horticulture 24(4): 23-24.
• Surjosubandrio, S., 1959. Melati [Jasmine]. Madjalah Berkala Pertanian 10: 236-244.
• Tobroni, M., 1981. Tanaman melati di Jawa Tengah dan Yogyakarta [Jasminum cultivation in Central Java and Yogyakarta]. Warta Balai Penelitian Teh dan Kina 7(3/4): 343-353.

• Jasminum elongatum
• Jasminum multiflorum
• Jasminum sambac
• Jasminum subtriplinerve

• Joeni Setijo Rahajoe, R. Kiew & J.L.C.H. van Valkenburg