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<big>''[[Stemona tuberosa]]'' Lour.</big>
__NOTOC__
:Protologue: Fl. cochinch. 1: 404 (1790).
:Chromosome number: 2''n''= unknown
Stemona tuberosa Lour. - 1, leafy stem; 2, inflorescence, the peduncle partly fused with the petiole; 3, dehisced fruit; 4, tuberous roots
== Synonyms ==
*''Roxburghia gloriosoides'' Roxb. (1795), *''Roxburghia gloriosa'' Pers. (1805), *''Stemona moluccana'' (Blume) C.H. Wight (1896).
== Vernacular names ==
''S. tuberosa'' is found from continental South-East Asia, Hainan and Taiwan throughout Malesia from the Philippines southward to the Lesser Sunda Islands, the Moluccas and Papua.
== Uses ==
The tuberous roots of various ''Stemona'' are used throughout South-East Asia, China and Japan as insecticides and therapeutical agents (especially for coughs). In South-East Asia, ''S. tuberosa'' is by far the most important species. In the Moluccas the ground fresh tuberous roots are used to repel lice from body and clothing. In Thailand, the tuberous roots, crushed and soaked in water, are topically applied to treat scabies and kill head lice. In Vietnamese folk medicine the tuberous roots are used internally as an antitussive and anthelmintic, and externally as an insecticide. As an anthelmintic it is applied as an enema or as a decoction in combination with a purgative.
''S. javanica'' (Kunth) Engler (synonym ''Stemona asperula'' J.J. Smith) from the south coast of Java, the Moluccas and New Guinea is only occasionally used medicinally in the Moluccas. The tuberous roots are used as a fish poison and an extract from the stem is given as a drink after childbirth for purification. In the Central Province (Papua New Guinea) crushed leaves of ''S. australiana'' (Benth.) C.H. Wright are used to treat snakebite. In Burma (Myanmar), the tuberous roots of ''S. burkillii'' Prain are used as an insecticide. In Thailand, the tuberous roots of ''S. burkillii'' , ''S. tuberosa'' or ''S. collinsae'' Craib (a low erect herb), and probably also ''S. curtisii'' Hook.f. (a tall climber) are used indiscriminately to treat skin diseases. The root of ''S. phyllantha'' Gagnep. is applied as a shampoo to kill head lice.
== Production and international trade ==
The tuberous roots of various ''Stemona'' species are known for their presence of series of alkaloids. The tuberous roots of ''S. tuberosa'' are reported to contain stemonine, bisdehydro-stemonine, stemonidine, stemotinine, isostemotinine, tuberostemonine, bisdehydro-tuberostemonine, tuberostemonone, tuberostemonol, neotuberostemonine and bisdehydro-neotuberostemonine. In addition, 3-hydroxyflavone and 3 bibenzyls have also been isolated: 3-hydroxy-2',5-dimethoxy-2-methylbibenzyl, 3,5-dihydroxy-2'-methoxy-4-methylbibenzyl and 3,5-dihydroxy-4-methoxy-4-methylbibenzyl. The root of ''S. japonica'' Franch. & Savigny furthermore contains the alkaloids neostemonine, bisdehydro-neostemonine, bisdehydro-protostemonine, isoprotostemonine and tuberostemonine.
The effects of tuberostemonine on the motility of parasitic helminths and isolated frog rectus and mouse ileum were studied in vitro. Tuberostemonine (2 × 10<sup>-5</sup>M) paralyzed the motility of the helmint ''Angiostrongylus cantonensis'' , and at a concentration of 6.7 × 10<sup>-5</sup>M showed contractive effects on the motility of ''Dipylidium caninum'' and ''Fasciola hepatica'' . However, treatment with the alkaloid at 4.8 × 10<sup>-4</sup>M had little effect on the motility of ''Schistosoma japonicum'' . Tuberostemonine (6.7 × 10<sup>-5</sup>M) paralyzed the motility of the mouse isolated ileum preparation, and at concentrations of 6.7 × 10<sup>-7</sup>- 6.7 × 10<sup>-6</sup>M, stimulated the twitch response induced by guanidine in the frog isolated rectus preparation. Furthermore, both eserine and tuberostemonine acted antagonistically on all preparations with the exception of ''Schistosoma japonicum'' , and both tuberostemonine and strychnine were antagonistic in isolated host tissues, whereas these compounds acted similarly on parasitic helminths. It is therefore suggested that some of the experiential effects of the crude extracts of ''Stemona'' , especially the anthelmintic effects, are caused through the action of tuberostemonine on parasitic helminths and host tissues.
At the crayfish neuromuscular junction, tuberostemonine reduced the amplitude of both the excitatory junctional potential (e.j.p.) and the glutamate response in a dose-dependent manner at concentrations above 0.1 mM. Tuberostemonine acted presynaptically on the crayfish neuromuscular junction to reduce a quantal content of extracellularly recorded e.j.p.s, and post-synaptically to reduce their unit size. The decay of the excitatory synaptic current was accelerated by tuberostemonine. The gradual decline of the successive glutamate currents induced by a train was facilitated by the presence of tuberostemonine even in the muscle fibre pre-treated with concanavalin A. The rate of recovery from the refractory form of the glutamate receptor to the free reactive one was slightly affected by tuberostemonine when it was determined by using a paired pulse method. The inhibitory action of tuberostemonine on glutamate responses was voltage-dependent and hyperpolarization increased the drug action. These results indicate that tuberostemonine acts in part as an open-channel blocker at the crayfish neuromuscular junction.
A water extract of the tuberous roots of ''S. sessilifolia'' Franch. & Savigny shows a relaxation effect on the airway smooth muscles. It concentration-dependently reduced contractions in guinea-pig isolated tracheal preparations acting on the muscarinic receptors and dihydropyridine binding sites.
An aqueous extract of the tuberous roots of ''S. tuberosa'' showed strong larvicidal activity against the mosquitos ''Aedes aegypti'' , ''Anopheles maculatus'' and ''Culex quinquefasciatus'' . In addition, a crude ethanol extract from the tuberous roots of ''S. collinsae'' has a strong larvicidal activity against the cattle tick ''Boophilus microplus'' . However, information on its efficacy against the adult is somewhat contradictory. Effectiveness of the crude ethanol extract against the third instar larvae of the diamond-back moth was 100% at 20 mg/ml under laboratory conditions. Reports on the presence of rotenoids in ''Stemona'' tuberous roots are probably based on the papilionaceous substitute ''Clitoria hanceana'' Hemsl. (synonym ''Clitoria macrophylla'' auct. non Wallich ex Benth.), an erect treelet with tuberous roots, or the climbing herbaceous ''Clitoria macrophylla'' Wallich ex Benth. Information may be based on the Thai crude drug "non-taai-yaak" that contains the tuberous roots of the above-mentioned ''Clitoria'' or tuberous roots of ''S. burkillii'' , ''S. collinsae'' or ''S. tuberosa'' and probably also ''S. curtisii'' .
Reports on the presence of rotenoids in ''Stemona'' tuberous roots are probably based on the papilionaceous substitute ''Clitoria hanceana'' Hemsl. (synonym ''Clitoria macrophylla'' auct. non Wallich ex Benth.), an erect treelet with tuberous roots, or the climbing herbaceous ''Clitoria macrophylla'' Wallich ex Benth. Information may be based on the Thai crude drug "non-taai-yaak" that contains the tuberous roots of the above-mentioned ''Clitoria'' or tuberous roots of ''S. burkillii'', ''S. collinsae'' or ''S. tuberosa'' and probably also ''S. curtisii''.
== Description ==
*A glabrous, perennial, herbaceous twiner to 4(-10) m long; roots forming a fascicle of many thick, fleshy, yellow or black tuberous roots up to 15-20 cm long. *Leaves opposite, those at the lower part of shoots often alternate, ovate or broadly ovate, 9-20 cm × 3-14 cm, base cordate, apex acuminate, veins 9-13, all basal; petiole 1.5-7 cm long, not sheathing; stipules absent. *Inflorescence axillary, racemose, (1-)2-6-flowered; peduncle 2-8 cm long, free or fused with the petiole for 0.5-3 cm; bracts 0.5-1.5 cm long. *Flowers 4-merous, pedicel 0.5-3 cm long, tepals in 2 rows of 2 tepals, free, valvate, persistent, 2.5-4 cm × 0.4-1 cm, outside green or yellowish with dark green or purple stripes, inside brown or brown-red with red stripes; stamens 4, 2.5-4 cm long, filaments short, anthers 0.8-1.5 cm long, appendix of anthers 5-12 mm long, tips fused, purple; ovary superior; style absent. *Fruit a pendulous capsule, 4-7 cm × 1.5-2 cm, opening with 2 valves, 10-20-seeded. *Seed 1-1.7 cm long, with an acumen about 4 mm long, basally inserted, dangling on a 8 mm long funicle, the base surrounded by a vesicular aril.
== Growth and development ==
''S. tuberosa'' can be found flowering and fruiting throughout the year; locally some seasonality can be observed. Flowers have an unpleasant smell and are visited by small flies belonging to the family ''Longhaeidae'' .
== Other botanical information ==
''S. tuberosa'' is widespread throughout South-East Asia, and can be found in disturbed open habitats. However, locally, populations may be suffering from overexploitation.
== Prospects ==
== Literature ==
* Duyfjes, B.E.E., 1993. Stemonaceae. In: Kalkman, C., Kirkup, D.W., Nooteboom, H.P., Stevens, P.F. & de Wilde, W.J.J.O. (Editors): Flora Malesiana. Series 1, Vol. 11. Rijksherbarium/Hortus Botanicus, Leiden, the Netherlands. pp. 399-409.
== Other selected sources ==
* [135] Burkill, I.H., 1966. A dictionary of the economic products of the Malay Peninsula. Revised reprint. 2 volumes. Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Vol. 1 (A-HA—H) pp. 1-12401—1240, Vol. 2 (I-ZI—Z) pp. 1241-24441241—2444. *[264] Doan Thi Nhu, Nguyen Thuong Thuc, Do Huy Bich & Vu Thuy Huyen (Editors), 1990. Les plantes médicinales au Vietnam. Livre 1. Médicine traditionelle et pharmacopée [The medicinal plants of Vietnam. Volume 1. Traditional medicine and pharmacopoeia]. Agence de coopération Culturelle et Technique, Paris, France. 201 pp.*[407] Heyne, K., 1950. De nuttige planten van Indonesië [The useful plants of Indonesia]. 3rd Edition. 2 volumes. W. van Hoeve, 's-Gravenhage, the Netherlands/Bandung, Indonesia. 1660 + CCXLI pp.*[483] Jansawan, W., Jittapalapong, S. & Jantaraj, N., 1993. Effect of Stemona collinsae extract against cattle ticks (Boophilus microplus). Kasetsart Journal, Natural Sciences 27(3): 336—340.*[594] Lee, H.L. & Chiang, Y.F., 1994. Insecticidal activity of the herbal plant, Stemona tuberosa Lour. to mosquito larvae. Tropical Biomedicine 11(1): 87—89.*[615] Lin, W.H., Ye, Y. & Xu, R.S., 1992. Chemical studies on new Stemona alkaloids IV: studies on new alkaloids from Stemona tuberosa. Journal of Natural Products 55(5): 571—576.*[739] Nguyen Van Duong, 1993. Medicinal plants of Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos. Mekong Printing, Santa Ana, California, United States. 528 pp.*[786] Perry, L.M., 1980. Medicinal plants of East and Southeast Asia. Attributed properties and uses. MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States & London, United Kingdom. 620 pp.*[867] Saralamp, P., Chuakul, W., Temsiririrkkul, R. & Clayton, T. (Editors), 1996. Medicinal plants in Thailand. Vol. I. Department of Pharmaceutical Botany, Faculty of Pharmacy, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand. 219 pp.*[1047] Vo Van Chi, 1997. Dictionary of medicinal plants of Vietnam. Hanoi Medical Publishing House, Hanoi, Vietnam. 1467 pp.*[1107] Ye, Y., Qin, G.W. & Xu, R.S., 1994. Alkaloids from Stemona tuberosa. Phytochemistry 37(4): 1201—1203.
== Authors ==
*Nguyen Nghia Thin