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<big>''[[Stachytarpheta jamaicensis]]'' (L.) Vahl</big>
__NOTOC__
:Protologue: Enum. Pl. 1: 206 (1804).
:Chromosome number: 2''n''= unknown
Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl - 1, plant habit; 2, detail of inflorescence; 3, fruit
== Synonyms ==
*''Stachytarpheta indica'' auct. non (L.) Vahl
== Vernacular names ==
*(Blue, Jamaican) Snakeweed, (bastard) vervain (En). *Queue de rat, vervaine (Fr)
*Indonesia: jarong (Javanese, Sundanese), gajihan, ngadi rengga (Javanese)
*Philippines: kandikandilaan (Tagalog), bolo moros (Bikol), albaka (Panay Bisaya)
''S. jamaicensis'' is only used on a local scale.
== Properties ==
As is the case with many ''Verbenaceae'' , ''Stachytarpheta'' species are also known to accumulate iridoids and phenylpropanoids. Ipolamiide is an example of an iridoid-glucoside found in e.g. ''S. jamaicensis'' , ''S. mutabilis'' (Jacq.) Vahl and ''S. cayennensis'' (Rich.) Vahl '''.''' 6β-Hydroxy-ipolamiide was isolated and characterizedfrom the roots of ''S. indica'' '''.''' The phenylpropanoid verbascoside, which is also known as acetoside, is reported for ''S. jamaicensis'' and ''S. cayennensis'' .
In a general pharmacological screening, gradual doses of an aqueous extract of ''S. jamaicensis'' leaves were intraperitoneally administered to rats.The following effects were noted: a reduction of motor activity and the alarm reaction, ataxia, sedation, analgesia, anaesthesia, ptosis, piloerection, head tremors and a significant reduction of body temperature of about 8.4C4 °C. Robichaud's sign was present, probably due to some muscular relaxation. There were appreciable changes in respiration, with an increase in amplitude and reduction of frequency, followed by apnoea and the death of the animals, probably due to asphyxia. It is furthermore reported that ipolamiide and verbascoside are present in the extract, but no further information is available on their relation, or other compounds with the effects observed. The ethanol extract from fresh leaves and stem parts of ''S. jamaicensis'' exhibited spasmolytic and vasodilating activities. In addition, the petroleum ether extract of ''S. jamaicensis'' showed no antibacterial activity using the agar dilution streak method on 6 bacteria: ''Enterococcus faecalis'' , ''Escherichia coli'' , ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'' , ''Salmonella typhimurium'' , ''Staphylococcus aureus'' and ''Staphylococcus epidermidis'' . However, in a toxicity test on 4-stage larvae of the mosquito ''Aedes aegypti'' the ethyl acetate extract of the leaves showed strong growth retardant and anti-feedant activity. Likewise larvicidal activity was observed on the tick ''Boophilus microplus'' .
In addition, the petroleum ether extract of ''S. jamaicensis'' showed no antibacterial activity using the agar dilution streak method on 6 bacteria: ''Enterococcus faecalis'', ''Escherichia coli'', ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'', ''Salmonella typhimurium'', ''Staphylococcus aureus'' and ''Staphylococcus epidermidis''. However, in a toxicity test on 4-stage larvae of the mosquito ''Aedes aegypti'' the ethyl acetate extract of the leaves showed strong growth retardant and anti-feedant activity. Likewise larvicidal activity was observed on the tick ''Boophilus microplus''.
The ethanolic- and n-butanolic extracts of dried leaves of ''S. cayennensis'' were investigated using anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive in vivo models. Intraperitoneal pretreatment with the dried extracts, at doses ranging from 100 to 200 mg/kg, significantly inhibited carrageenan induced oedema formation in rats. The active extracts were further fractionated and monitored with the same bioassay: ipolamiide and verbascoside were isolated and subsequently shown to inhibit histamine- and bradykinin induced contractions of the guinea-pig ileum in vitro. In addition, the compounds also showed in vivo anti-inflammatory activity when administered orally to rats, mainly in the fourth hour after the administration of the phlogistic agent (70% and 94%, respectively). These results indicate that ipolamiide and verbascoside from ''S. cayennensis'' show anti-inflammatory properties which seem to be due, at least partly, to the inhibition of bradykinin and histamine. The extracts also exhibited antinociceptive activity measured by the hot-plate test, both i.p. and p.o. and in doses ranging from 100 to 300 mg/kg. Furthermore, acute (48 h) and subchronic (30 days) evaluation of the aqueous and ethanolic extracts in mice showed no significant effects for doses up to 300 mg/kg. For the butanol extract, however, tested at 100 mg/kg in the acute model, abdominal contractions and difficulties in locomotion have been observed immediately, and for up to 2 hours following injection.
Subsequent pharmacological studies indicate that the anti-ulcer activity of ''S. cayennensis'' is related to a specific inhibition of the gastric acid secretion. Cholinergic and histaminergic stimulation of acid secretion were similarly reduced by the extracts, suggesting inhibition of common steps in both pathways, possibly at the level of histamine release/H2 receptor interaction, or at the proton pump. In addition, the freeze-dried aqueous extract of the whole plant tested in rodents up to doses of 2 g/kg orally, produced no signs of toxicity.
Finally, ipolamiide isolated from ''S. mutabilis'' inhibited feeding by the locusts ''Schistocerca gregaria'' and ''Locusta migratoria'' and larvae of the noctuid ''Spodoptera littoralis'' . It was active at concentrations well below those occurring naturally.
== Description ==
*An erect perennial herb, up to 1.2(-2) m tall, sometimes woody at the base, often dichotomously branched from the base and spreading; young stems obtusely quadrangular, sparingly hairy. *Leaves opposite, simple, obovate to oblong-elliptical, (2-)4-9 cm × (1-)2-5 cm, base cuneate to wing-like decurrent, apex obtuse to slightly acute, margin serrate-dentate, glabrous above, sometimes sparingly hairy below; subsessile to shortly petiolate; stipules absent. *Inflorescence a spike, solitary, terete, stout, often flexuous, 15-50 cm long, rachis up to 7 mm in diameter, the furrows of the half immersed flowers much narrower than the mature rachis; peduncle (0.5-)1-2.5(-3.5) cm long, glabrous. *Flowers sessile, at first erect, later immersed in the thickened rachis, bracteate; calyx compressed, completely embedded, about 5-7 mm long, the rim bilobed with 4 equal and 1 smaller tooth; corolla pale bluish, violet or purple, with a whitish spot at the throat, hypocrateriform, the tube about 1 cm long, slightly curved, 2-lipped, the upper lip 2-lobed, the lower 3-lobed, lobes subequal, the limb about 8 mm wide; fertile stamens 2, staminodes 2; ovary superior, 2-locular, style included. *Fruit a schizocarp, oblong-linear, 3-5(-7) mm × 1.5-2 mm, enclosed in the fruiting calyx, splitting at maturity into 2 hard mericarps, each 1-seeded. *Seed linear, without endosperm.
== Growth and development ==
== Other botanical information ==
''Stachytarpheta'' is most abundant in the New World tropics and subtropics, and comprises some 65 species and many infraspecific and hybrid taxa. Great confusion exists in the South-East Asian literature with respect to the names ''S. indica'' (L.) Vahl and ''S. jamaicensis'' . In most cases the name ''S. indica'' has been misapplied to ''S. jamaicensis'' , and quite often ''S. jamaicensis'' has been misapplied to ''S. urticifolia'' Sims. Some adhere to the view that ''S. urticifolia'' and also ''S. dichotoma'' (Ruiz. & Pav.) Vahl should be considered synonyms of ''S. cayennensis'' (Rich.) Vahl. The three species are distinguished based on vegetative and floral characters, like the general stature of the plant, dimensions and serration of the leaf, the dimensions of the calyx teeth and the colour of the corolla mouth and curvature of the tube. Mention is made of plants in mixed populations showing intermediate characters, often ascribed to hybridisation. The common weed ''Stachytarpheta'' used in folk medicine is in the majority of cases ''S. jamaicensis'' . In view of the taxonomic complexity of this closely related group of species, only ''S. jamaicensis'' is treated here but properties and uses may equally apply to the other species in this complex.
== Ecology ==
''S. jamaicensis'' is widespread and common throughout South-East Asia, and therefore not endangered.
== Prospects ==
== Literature ==
* Chariandy, C.M., Seaforth, C.E., Phelps, R.H., Pollard, G.V. & Khambay, B.P.S., 1999. Screening of medicinal plants from Trinidad and Tobago for antimicrobial and insecticidal properties. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 64(3): 265-270.
== Other selected sources ==
*[74] Backer, C.A. & Bakhuizen van den Brink Jr, R.C., 1964—1968. Flora of Java. 3 volumes. Noordhoff, Groningen, the Netherlands. Vol. 1 (1964) 647 pp., Vol. 2 (1965) 641 pp., Vol. 3 (1968) 761 pp.*[105] Bernays, 134E. & de Luca,C., 1981. Insect antifeedant properties of an iridoid glycoside: ipolamiide. Experientia 37(12): 1289—1290.*[134] Burkill, H.M., 1985—2000. The useful plants of West tropical Africa. 2nd Edition. 5 volumes. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, United Kingdom. Vol. 1 (1985), Families A—D, 960 pp.; Vol. 2 (1994), Families E—I, 636 pp.; Vol. 3 (1995), Families J—L, 857 pp.; Vol. 4 (1997), Families M—R, 969 pp; Vol. 5 (2000), Families S—Z, 686 pp.* [135] Burkill, I.H., 1966. A dictionary of the economic products of the Malay Peninsula. Revised reprint. 2 volumes. Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Vol. 1 (A-HA—H) pp. 1-12401—1240, Vol. 2 (I-ZI—Z) pp. 1241-24441241—2444. * [201] Chuakul, W., Saralamp, P., Paonil, W., Temsiririrkkul, R. & Clayton, T. (Editors), 1997. Medicinal plants in Thailand. Vol. II. Department of Pharmaceutical Botany, Faculty of Pharmacy, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand. 248 pp.*[228] Daniel, P. & Rajendran, A., 1992. Lectotypification of Stachytarpheta urticifolia Sims (Verbenaceae). Taxon 41(4): 751.*[252] Dharma, A.P., 1981. Indonesische geneeskrachtige planten [Indonesian medicinal plants]. De Driehoek, Amsterdam, the Netherlands. 168 pp.*[302] Feng, P.C., Haynes, L.J., Magnus, K.E., Plimmer, J.R. & Sherratt, H.S.A., 1962. Pharmacological screening of some West Indian medicinal plants. Journal of Pharmaceutical Pharmacology 14(2): 556—561.*[380] Gutierrez, H.G., 1980—1982. An illustrated manual of Philippine materia medica. 2 volumes. Natural Research Council of the Philippines, Tagig, Metro Manila, the Philippines. Vol. 1 (1980) pp. 1—234, Vol. 2 (1982) pp. 235—485.*[407] Heyne, K., 1950. De nuttige planten van Indonesië [The useful plants of Indonesia]. 3rd Edition. 2 volumes. W. van Hoeve, 's-Gravenhage, the Netherlands/Bandung, Indonesia. 1660 + CCXLI pp.*[440] Holm, J., Doll, J. & Holm, E., 1997. World weeds: natural histories and distribution. Wiley, New York, United States. 1129 pp.*[662] Matthew, K.M., 1981—1988. The flora of the Tamilnadu Carnatic. 4 volumes. The Rapinat Herbarium, St. Joseph's College, Tiruchirapalli, India.*[688] Moldenke, H.N. & Moldenke, A.L., 1983. Verbenaceae. In: Dassanayake, M.D. & Fosberg, F.R. (Editors): A revised handbook to the flora of Ceylon. Vol. 4. Amerind Publishing Co., New Delhi, India. pp. 196—487.*[786] Perry, L.M., 1980. Medicinal plants of East and Southeast Asia. Attributed properties and uses. MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States & London, United Kingdom. 620 pp.*[788] Pételot, A., 1952—1954. Les plantes médicinales du Cambodge, du Laos et du Vietnam [The medicinal plants of Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam]. 4 volumes. Centre National de Recherches Scientifiques et Techniques, Saigon, Vietnam.*[810] Quisumbing, E., 1978. Medicinal plants of the Philippines. Katha Publishing Co., Quezon City, the Philippines. 1262 pp.*[951] Soerjani, M., Kostermans, A.J.G.H. & Tjitrosoepomo, G. (Editors), 1987. Weeds of rice in Indonesia. Balai Pustaka, Jakarta, Indonesia. 716 pp.*[1071] Wijayakusuma, H.M.H., Wirian, A.S., Yaputra, T., Dalimartha, S. & Wibowo, B., 1992. Tanaman berkhasiat obat di Indonesia [Medicinal plants in Indonesia]. Vol. 1. Pustaka Kartini, Jakarta, Indonesia. 122 pp.
== Authors ==
*J.L.C.H. van Valkenburg & N. Bunyapraphatsara
[[Category:Medicinal plants (PROSEA)]]
[[Category:PROSEA]]