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'''== Synonyms''' == *''Bromelia comosa'' L. (1754), *''Ananas sativus'' (Lindley) Schultes f. (1830). == Vernacular names ==

'''Vernacular names''' *Pineapple, ananas (En). *Ananas, pain de sucre (Fr)

'''== Origin and geographic distribution''' The pineapple has its origin in South America where it was domesticated before the time of Columbus. In the 16th Century the Spaniards took the pineapple to the Philippines and Peninsular Malaysia and possibly also Indonesia. The crop is now widely grown throughout the tropics and into the subtropics. The international canning industry is based on plantations in Thailand, the Philippines, Malaysia and north Sumatra as well as in Hawaii, Brazil, Taiwan, South Africa, Kenya, Ivory Coast, Mexico and Puerto Rico.==

'''Uses''' The pineapple is best eaten fresh, although has its origin in South America where it can be cooked in a number was domesticated before the time of dishesColumbus. The fruits were canned as early as In the end of the 19th 16th Century in Hawaii and Singapore and to date the bulk of Spaniards took the crop is grown for canning and exported all over pineapple to the world. The fruits are canned as slices, spirals, chunks, spears, titbits Philippines and cubesPeninsular Malaysia and possibly also Indonesia. The flesh adhering to the shell after peeling crop is scraped now widely grown throughout the tropics and made into pineapple crush or juicethe subtropics. The latter international canning industry is also made by crushing the shell, core and bits and pieces of flesh which could not be used as specified cuts. Pieces may be canned mixed with other fruits, e.g. rambutan based on plantations in Thailand. The fruits are also made into jam or used for crystallized and glacé fruit. The by-products of canning can be used as cattle feed or to produce pineapple wine or vinegar. Organic acids such as citric, malic the Philippines, Malaysia and ascorbic can be obtained from the fruit north Sumatra as well as from the plants. Pineapple proteasesin Hawaii, used to tenderize meatBrazil, are obtained from the stems Taiwan, South Africa, Kenya, Ivory Coast, Mexico and fruits. In the Philippines and Taiwan the fibres from the leaves are woven into a fine pina clothPuerto Rico.

'''== Uses == The pineapple is best eaten fresh, although it can be cooked in a number of dishes. The fruits were canned as early as the end of the 19th Century in Hawaii and Singapore and to date the bulk of the crop is grown for canning and exported all over the world. The fruits are canned as slices, spirals, chunks, spears, titbits and cubes. The flesh adhering to the shell after peeling is scraped and made into pineapple crush or juice. The latter is also made by crushing the shell, core and bits and pieces of flesh which could not be used as specified cuts. Pieces may be canned mixed with other fruits, e.g. rambutan in Thailand. The fruits are also made into jam or used for crystallized and glacé fruit. The by-products of canning can be used as cattle feed or to produce pineapple wine or vinegar. Organic acids such as citric, malic and ascorbic can be obtained from the fruit as well as from the plants. Pineapple proteases, used to tenderize meat, are obtained from the stems and fruits. In the Philippines and Taiwan the fibres from the leaves are woven into a fine pina cloth. == Production and international trade''' == The mean annual world production of fresh pineapple for 1984-1987 was 9.7 million t, of which the Philippines' share was 1.78 million and Thailand's 1.73 million. Vietnam's figure stood at 0.41; Indonesia 0.35; Malaysia 0.18; Laos 0.04 and Cambodia 0.01 million t. Of the 0.63 million t mean annual world export of canned pineapple between 1984-1986, Thailand's and the Philippines' shares were 32% (0.20 million t) and 28% (0.18 million t) respectively. The mean figure for fresh export was 0.45 million t, of which the Philippines' share was 0.15 million t and Thailand's a mere 0.01 million t.

'''== Properties''' The portion of the fruit that is canned varies from a low of 18% in "Singapore Spanish" to a high of 60% in "Smooth Cayenne". Contents per 100 g edible portion: water 85 g, protein 0.4 g, sugar 14 g, fat 0.1 g, and fibre 0.5 g. The properties depend on the environment: fruit from the lowlands is larger, sweeter and more juicy than fruit grown in the highlands. The juice contains 0.5-0.9% acids and 10-17% sugar. In the canned product the sugar content is increased to about 22% and citric acid is added to 0.6%. Pineapple also contains bromelin, a protein-digesting enzyme.==

'''Description''' Perennial or biennial herb, 50-150 cm tall. Leaves sword-shaped, up The portion of the fruit that is canned varies from a low of 18% in "Singapore Spanish" to 1 m or more long, 5-8 cm wide, margin spiny or almost entire, top ending in a fine point, fleshy, fibrous, grooved on upper surface, arranged high of 60% in a close spiral"Smooth Cayenne". Contents per 100 g edible portion: water 85 g, clasping the main axis at their baseprotein 0. Inflorescence compact with numerous (up to 200) reddish-purple sessile flowers4 g, each subtended by a pointed bract; sepals 3sugar 14 g, shortfat 0.1 g, fleshy; petals 3, forming a tube enclosing 6 stamens and a narrow style with 3-branched stigmafibre 0. Fruit a coenocarpium formed by an extensive thickening of 5 g. The properties depend on the axis of environment: fruit from the inflorescence and by the fusion of the small berry-like individual fruits; the hard rind of the fruit lowlands is formed by the persistent sepals larger, sweeter and floral bracts, which more or less fuse; on average the juicy than fruit is cylindrical, about 20 cm long and 14 cm grown in diameter, weighing 1the highlands. The juice contains 0.5-0.9% acids and 10-217% sugar.5 kg; In the fruit canned product the sugar content is surmounted by a rosette of short, stiff spirally arranged leaves, called the "crown"; flesh pale increased to about 22% and citric acid is added to golden yellow, usually seedless0. Besides the "crown", 6%. Pineapple also "slips" (shoots growing on the stem below the fruit) and "suckers" (shoots growing in leaf axils lower down the stem) are formedcontains bromelin, which can be used for vegetative propagationa protein-digesting enzyme.

'''== Description == *Perennial or biennial herb, 50-150 cm tall.*Leaves sword-shaped, up to 1 m or more long, 5-8 cm wide, margin spiny or almost entire, top ending in a fine point, fleshy, fibrous, grooved on upper surface, arranged in a close spiral, clasping the main axis at their base.*Inflorescence compact with numerous (up to 200) reddish-purple sessile flowers, each subtended by a pointed bract; sepals 3, short, fleshy; petals 3, forming a tube enclosing 6 stamens and a narrow style with 3-branched stigma.*Fruit a coenocarpium formed by an extensive thickening of the axis of the inflorescence and by the fusion of the small berry-like individual fruits; the hard rind of the fruit is formed by the persistent sepals and floral bracts, which more or less fuse; on average the fruit is cylindrical, about 20 cm long and 14 cm in diameter, weighing 1-2.5 kg; the fruit is surmounted by a rosette of short, stiff spirally arranged leaves, called the "crown"; flesh pale to golden yellow, usually seedless. Besides the "crown", also "slips" (shoots growing on the stem below the fruit) and "suckers" (shoots growing in leaf axils lower down the stem) are formed, which can be used for vegetative propagation. == Growth and development''' == The plant forms a rosette with gradually larger leaves up to a size that reflects the prevailing growing conditions. Thereafter leaf size remains constant and when the apical meristem has produced a total of 70-80 leaves - at the rate of one per week during periods of fast growth - it turns floral and the plant bolts: the central axis elongates to flower and fruit.

'''== Other botanical information''' Many pineapple cultivars exist, differing in plant and fruit size, in the colour and flavour of the flesh of the fruit and in the entire or spiny leaf margin. Nearly all cultivars for commercial production can be grouped as follows (each group indicated by the name of the cultivar from which it originated):==

'''== Ecology''' == Pineapple is cultivated between 25°N and S. The temperature range of growing areas is 23-32°C, although plants can be grown in areas where temperature drops as low as 10°C. However, the plant does not tolerate frost and the fruit is sensitive to sunburn. Crop duration increases substantially further away from the equator and at higher elevations. Moreover, sensitivity to daylength has the effect of making the crop more seasonal at higher latitudes. Within the limits of its distribution the mean annual sunshine varies from about 33-71% of the maximum duration, with a mean annual value of 2000 hours. In Kenya it is grown at elevations of 1800 m where fruits develop a sugar:acid ratio of 16:1 which is ideal for canning. At higher elevations fruits become too acidic. The plants are tolerant to drought and a wide range of rainfall; 1000-1500 mm per annum is considered optimal. A well-drained sandy loam is preferred, with a high organic matter content and pH 4.5-6.5. However, plants can be grown over a wide range of soil types, such as the acid peats (pH 3-5) in Malaysia. Drainage should be perfect, because waterlogged plants quickly succumb to root rot. == Propagation and planting ==

'''Propagation and planting''' Pineapple is propagated by crowns, slips or suckers. Slips are the preferred material. Suckers are mainly used when "Smooth Cayenne" is planted, because few slips develop. Crowns are seldom used for large-scale planting because their size is not uniform. However, in Thailand crowns of "Smooth Cayenne" are favoured, graded into three sizes. Generally a single type of planting material is used for a field to ensure uniform growth and fruiting. In smallholdings where pineapple is grown for the fresh fruit market and where all planting material is valuable, a mixture of shoot types may be used. Suckers are allowed to develop for the ratoon crop.

'''== Husbandry''' == In a suitable tropical climate the growth rate of the crop mainly depends on a steady moisture supply to the shallow root zone. Growth stagnates when moisture is lacking and excessive wetness invites foot rot. A range of growing techniques is employed to maintain moderate moisture levels: excellent drainage, if necessary helped by planting on raised beds, careful weed control, a polythene mulch over each row. Weeding a pineapple plot is not easy, but experiments in Malaysia have shown that weeds can reduce yield by as much as 42% in a new planting and 21% in a ratoon crop. This also depends on the weed species. Lalang ( ''Imperata cylindrica'' (L.) Beauv.) physically damages the pineapple plants with its underground rhizomes, and once it has gained a foothold, it can only be eradicated by killing the pineapple plants as well. The other noxious weed is nut grass ( ''Cyperus rotundus'' L.). Systemic herbicides are recommended for the control of these weeds. Bromacil can be used as a pre-emergence herbicide against nut grass. Depending on the weed flora, other pre- and post-emergence herbicides are used too.

The importance of fertilizers, especially nitrogen and potassium, in pineapple culture is well known. Nitrogen is required for vigorous plant growth but not when flower induction is contemplated because vigorous growth reduces flowering response. Phosphorus is needed during the first few months of growth while potassium is needed for fruit development. In the nutrient-deficient peat soils of Malaysia the recommended rates are 14 g N, 0.7 g P₂O₅and 23 g K₂O per plant, given as a broadcast three months after planting and two foliar sprays at 6 and 9 months. For ratoon crops, two-thirds of the above levels are applied per year. In Thailand where the crop is grown on sandy loam, the rates are 9 g N, 2.4 g P₂O₅and 7 g K₂O per plant for a plant crop. This is applied as one basal dressing, two leaf axil dressings, five foliar sprays and two urea applications, the latter combined with the flower induction treatments. The rates for the first ratoon crop are 6.5 g N and 6.3 g K₂O per plant.

'''== Diseases and pests''' One of the most serious diseases of "Singapore Spanish" and "Masmerah", seen only in Malaysia, is fruit collapse. The causal bacterium, ''Erwinia chrysanthemi'' , attacks the fruit a few weeks before maturity when it suddenly exudes copious fluid and bubbles of gas. There is no effective direct control, but spraying heptachlor on the ground at the time of flowering and 2 weeks later controls the ants which spread the bacteria. Diseased fruits need to be removed and destroyed elsewhere to reduce the population of the bacteria in the field. The pathogen also causes bacterial heart rot when it infects the tender bases of young leaves of 3-6 month old plants. The rot can cause serious losses and is characterized by its putrefying odour. The Cayenne and Queen pineapple appear to be resistant to this bacterium. In the Philippines and Thailand, heart rot is caused by the fungi ''Phytophthora cinnamomi'' and ''P. parasitica'' respectively. Marbling disease of the fruit, caused by ''Erwinia ananas'' , appears to be the most serious problem in Thailand. It is hard to identify the disease and there is no effective control apart from lowering the amount of inoculum by sanitation. Other diseases of the pineapple fruit include leathery pocket, fruitlet core rot, interfruitlet corking, soft rot and yeasty rot.==

The mealybug ( ''Dysmicoccus brevipes'' ) is One of the most serious pest. The insect is common in the tropics and causes wilt diseases of "Smooth CayenneSingapore Spanish" and "Masmerah"; "Singapore Spanish" shows some resistance, seen only in Malaysia, is fruit collapse. Infected plants become yellowish-red to bright red at The causal bacterium, ''Erwinia chrysanthemi'', attacks the leaf tipsfruit a few weeks before maturity when it suddenly exudes copious fluid and bubbles of gas. There is no effective direct control, this colouration spreading down but spraying heptachlor on the ground at the leaf with timeof flowering and 2 weeks later controls the ants which spread the bacteria. Soon other leaves turn colour Diseased fruits need to be removed and also show signs destroyed elsewhere to reduce the population of wilting. Severely infested plants become stunted and produce small fruitsthe bacteria in the field. The mealybugs are found at pathogen also causes bacterial heart rot when it infects the base tender bases of young leaves, moving on to healthy of 3-6 month old plants once their host starts . The rot can cause serious losses and is characterized by its putrefying odour. The Cayenne and Queen pineapple appear to wiltbe resistant to this bacterium. Control of In the mealybugs involves control of Philippines and Thailand, heart rot is caused by the ants which are responsible for their spreadfungi ''Phytophthora cinnamomi'' and ''P. Spraying or dipping parasitica'' respectively. Marbling disease of the planting material using diazinon or malathion helps fruit, caused by ''Erwinia ananas'', appears to be the most serious problem in Thailand. It is hard to identify the disease and there is no effective control apart from lowering the wiltamount of inoculum by sanitation. Other diseases of the pineapple fruit include leathery pocket, fruitlet core rot, interfruitlet corking, soft rot and yeasty rot.

In Malaysia, fruits left to rot in The mealybug (''Dysmicoccus brevipes'') is the field as well as most serious pest. The insect is common in the large amount tropics and causes wilt of fruit peel "Smooth Cayenne" and "Masmerah"; "Singapore Spanish" shows some resistance. Infected plants become yellowish-red to bright red at canneries attract large populations of the beetle ''Carpophilus foveicollis'' leaf tips, which find this colouration spreading down the over-ripe fruit an ideal breeding groundleaf with time. Soon other leaves turn colour and also show signs of wilting. Severely infested plants become stunted and produce small fruits. These beetles The mealybugs are a nuisancefound at the base of leaves, as they may accidentally be canned with moving on to healthy plants once their host starts to wilt. Control of the mealybugs involves control of the ants which are responsible for their spread. Spraying or dipping the planting material using diazinon or malathion helps to control the fruitwilt.

'''Harvesting''' For canningIn Malaysia, the fruits are harvested at one-third ripe left to rot in the case of "Singapore Spanish" and one-sixth ripe with "Smooth Cayenne" and "Masmerah", field as well as the fraction referring to the part large amount of the fruit that has changed colour. Fruits harvested for the fresh fruit market may be picked half-ripe. Workers move along the path between the double rows and harvest the fruits by hand, chopping off the crown and peduncle peel at canneries attract large populations of the same time. If the fruit is destined for the fresh fruit marketbeetle ''Carpophilus foveicollis'', which find the crown and a portion of the peduncle is left intact. The over-ripe fruit is then thrown backwards into the rattan basket carried by the workeran ideal breeding ground. When the basket is full, the fruits These beetles are piled up at the edge of the field to be loaded onto trucks which transport them to the canneries. The bulk of the fruit is picked in the first round; a second and third harvest round at weekly intervals nuisance, as they may accidentally be needed to bring in canned with the remaining fruit.

'''For canning, the fruits are harvested at one-third ripe in the case of "Singapore Spanish" and one-sixth ripe with "Smooth Cayenne" and "Masmerah", the fraction referring to the part of the fruit that has changed colour. Fruits harvested for the fresh fruit market may be picked half-ripe. Workers move along the path between the double rows and harvest the fruits by hand, chopping off the crown and peduncle at the same time. If the fruit is destined for the fresh fruit market, the crown and a portion of the peduncle is left intact. The fruit is then thrown backwards into the rattan basket carried by the worker. When the basket is full, the fruits are piled up at the edge of the field to be loaded onto trucks which transport them to the canneries. The bulk of the fruit is picked in the first round; a second and third harvest round at weekly intervals may be needed to bring in the remaining fruit. == Yield == In Malaysia yield has always been low due to the small fruit of "Singapore Spanish". The plant crop gives about 30 t/ha after a period of 18 months. Ratoon yield is about 16 t/ha per year. The introduction of "Masmerah" helped increase yield, up to 60 t/ha for a plant crop. The mean annual yield is about 25 t/ha in Malaysia and also in Thailand and the Philippines, although in both countries "Smooth Cayenne" can yield 50-60 t/ha from a plant crop and about 35 t/ha from a ratoon crop. The annual yield for Indonesia has been estimated to be only 5 t/ha. Low yields are generally due to wide spacing and plant losses, low growth rates and inadequate flower induction. == Handling after harvest''' == "Singapore Spanish" fruit has a reasonably thick skin and is able to withstand the rough treatment meted out during bulk transport. Nevertheless instances of serious bruising occur, reducing cannery recovery. Other cultivars, such as "Smooth Cayenne", suffer even more and should not be handled in bulk but carried in wooden crates. At the cannery the fruits are graded into different sizes to facilitate skinning, which is usually done mechanically.

'''== Genetic resources''' The Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute's Agricultural Stations at Klang and Pontian have a collection of local cultivars and hybrids. In Thailand cultivars are maintained by the Department of Horticulture, Kasetsart University and the Siam-Agro Industry Co. in Rayong.==

The Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute'''Breeding''' Breeding of pineapple aims s Agricultural Stations at getting bigger fruits which are cylindrical in shape, with Klang and Pontian have a thin skin, high and well-balanced sugar and acid contents, yellow flesh, spineless leaves and resistance to the more common diseases collection of local cultivars and pestshybrids. The breeding programme in Malaysia resulted in In Thailand cultivars are maintained by the recent release Department of a cross between "Singapore Spanish" Horticulture, Kasetsart University and "Smooth Cayenne". Selection has been quite successful, resulting in the bigger fruited "Masmerah" to replace the smaller and thickSiam-skinned "Singapore Spanish"Agro Industry Co. Selection and breeding research in Malaysia has been scaled down as the pineapple acreage has been decliningRayong.

'''== Breeding == Breeding of pineapple aims at getting bigger fruits which are cylindrical in shape, with a thin skin, high and well-balanced sugar and acid contents, yellow flesh, spineless leaves and resistance to the more common diseases and pests. The breeding programme in Malaysia resulted in the recent release of a cross between "Singapore Spanish" and "Smooth Cayenne". Selection has been quite successful, resulting in the bigger fruited "Masmerah" to replace the smaller and thick-skinned "Singapore Spanish". Selection and breeding research in Malaysia has been scaled down as the pineapple acreage has been declining. == Prospects''' == Thailand is the leading producer of canned pineapple in the world, having overtaken the Philippines in 1986. Thailand has the potential to maintain its position in view of available cheap labour, extensive agricultural land, expertise in horticultural science and innovation in export products. The world consumption of canned and fresh pineapple has been increasing steadily and there is a definite future for the crop. However, the leading role can only be sustained by a strong research effort and it is a matter of grave concern that research activities have been cut back, in the region (Malaysia) as well as elsewhere (Hawaii). The favourable prospects for pineapple in South-East Asia depend very much on a revitalization of research work. == Literature ==

*Y.C. Wee & M.L. Charuphant Thongtham