View source for Antiaris toxicaria (PROSEA)

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[[File:Antiaris toxicaria MC.tif|thumb|1, fertile twig; 2, female inflorescence; 3, male inflorescence (Iskak Syamsudin)]]
<big>''[[Antiaris toxicaria]]'' Lesch.</big>
__NOTOC__
:Protologue: Ann. Mus. Natl. Hist. Nat. 16: 478 (1810).

:Family: Moraceae

:Chromosome number: 2''n''= 24, 28

== Synonyms ==

*''Antiaris macrophylla'' R.Br. (1814),
*''Antiaris africana'' Engl. (1902),
*''Antiaris welwitschii'' Engl. (1902).

== Vernacular names ==

*Upas tree, sacking tree (En)
*Indonesia: upas (general), ancar (Javanese), tatai (Sumatra)
*Malaysia: ipoh (Peninsular), tasem (Sarawak)
*Papua New Guinea: antiaris
*Philippines: dalit (Tagalog), ipo (Tagalog, Bisaya).
*Burma (Myanmar): aseik, hymaseik
*Laos: 'nong<sup>2</sup>, nong
*Thailand: yang nong (central, northern), yuan (peninsular)
*Vietnam: cây sui, thuốc bắn.

== Origin and geographic distribution ==

''Antiaris'' is a monotypic genus. The only species, ''A. toxicaria'' is found throughout the Old World tropics, from West Africa to Madagascar, and in Sri Lanka, India, Indo-China, southern China, Thailand, throughout the Malesian region, the Pacific (east to Fiji and Tonga), and northern Australia.

== Uses ==

The latex of ''A. toxicaria'' obtained from the bark is one of the principal components of dart and arrow poisons in South-East Asia, used by many peoples for hunting and warfare. It is usually mixed with poison obtained from ''Strychnos'' species and components from other plants or poisonous animals. Its effectiveness is thought to be enhanced by the synergy of its poisonous and irritating components. The latex is also reported to be used as fish poison and birdlime. Although a single species, old reports claim that trees from regions outside South-East Asia are less poisonous or even innocuous. It is possible that these reports refer to the latex being used differently, not as a dart or arrow poison, and thus not entering the bloodstream.

Seeds, leaves and bark are used as a febrifuge and the seeds also as an antidysentric. The latex is reported to be a mild circulatory and cardiac stimulant when used in very small amounts, but in large amounts it is a myocardial poison. In the Philippines, the soft wood is macerated and the fluid is used as a poultice for swellings. In India, upas tree is used as a febrifuge and to treat dysentery and epilepsy. In Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos, it is not used medicinally.

''A. toxicaria'' is a sacred tree among some South-East Asian peoples. The fruit contains latex, but is reported to be edible. The bark yields fibre to make clothing, cordage, sacks, mats and paper. The bark has also been used for dyeing. The wood is used in light construction, furniture, interior finish, pallets, crates and plywood.

== Production and international trade ==

The wood of ''A. toxicaria'' enters international trade, but the other products are for local use only.

== Properties ==

The active principles in the latex of ''A. toxicaria'' are the cardiac glycosides (cardenolides) e.g. α, β and γ-antiarin, which have digitalis-like effects on the heart. In larger amounts they lead to cardiac arrest and secondary effects such as vomiting and convulsions. Reports on lethal dosage, administered intravenously, specify 0.3 mg as lethal within 12 minutes for a rabbit, and 1 mg to cause death within 3-9 minutes in dogs.

When administered to anaesthetized rats, the crude latex of ''A. toxicaria'' results in changes in the electrocardiogram (ECG) and systemic blood pressure. The extract inhibited the Na<sup>+</sup>K<sup>+</sup>ATPase that was partially purified from guinea-pig heart muscle. When the extract, and ouabain as a reference compound were applied to isolated frog heart muscles a decrease of twitch frequency together with an increased twitch tension were observed. All these facts together suggest that the main components of the latex are cardiac glycosides, which affect Na<sup>+</sup>K<sup>+</sup>ATPase activity of the heart muscle membrane. The poison must enter the bloodstream to be effective; the latex can be ingested without any effects. However, a fatal case of rhabdomyolysis and acute oliguric ranal failure following oral ingestion of blowpipe dart poison prepared from ''Antiaris'' and ''Strychnos'' has been reported. The influence of intravenous administration or otherwise promoting the poison to enter the bloodstream was illustrated in an experiment with dogs. When administered subcutaneously in pure form, there was no permanent toxic effect; when diluted with a decoction of ''Strychnos ignatii'' Bergius and administered in the same way the latex provoked a higher frequency of respiration, vomiting, convulsions and a rapid death. The sequence of the effects on toads were mild convulsions, violent peristalsis, an acceleration of the heartbeat followed by a deceleration, a contraction of the blood vessels, and death.

Prenylaurones (antiarone A and B), prenylchalcones (antiarone C, D and E) and prenylflavanones (antiarone F, G, H and I) have been isolated from the root bark. An aqueous ethanol extract of the bark exhibited cytotoxic activity against CA-9KB cells.

== Adulterations and substitutes ==

Cardiac glycosides are found in several dozen genera. In Vietnam, for example, other plants containing cardiac glycosides include ''Asclepias curassavica'' L., ''Calotropis gigantea'' (L.) Dryander, ''Cerbera odollam'' Gaertner, ''Corchorus capsularis'' L., ''C. olitorius'' L., ''Digitalis'' spp., ''Nerium oleander'' L., ''Strophanthus'' spp. and ''Thevetia peruviana'' (Pers.) K. Schumann. In western medical practice, pure glycosides produced by the extraction industry are used instead of crude plant products.

== Description ==

*A monoecious, small to large tree up to 45(-60) m tall; bole straight, up to 180 cm in diameter, sometimes with steep buttresses up to 3 m high; bark surface smooth becoming slightly fissured, greyish-white, inner bark soft and fibrous, exuding a creamy copious latex which soon darkens to dirty brown and becomes granular upon exposure; twigs hairy.
*Leaves alternate, distichous, rounded to slightly heart-shaped, ovate or oblong, 7.5-20 cm × 3.5-8.5 cm, simple, slightly unequal at base, entire to denticulate; petiole 0.2-1 cm long, hairy; stipules free, caducous.
*Inflorescence on a short shoot, in leaf axils or below the leaves, subtended by involucral bracts, solitary or in groups of 2-4, the male ones below the female ones on the same twig. Male inflorescence a stalked discoid head with many flowers; each flower with 2-7 tepals and 2-4 stamens. Female inflorescence with 1-2 flowers, sessile or stalked; flower pear-shaped; perianth 4-lobed; ovary adnate to the perianth, 1-locular with a single ovule, styles 2.
*Fruit forming a drupaceous whole together with the enlarged, fleshy receptacle, ellipsoidal to pear-shaped, velvety.
*Seed one, cotyledon fleshy.
*Seedling with hypogeal germination, the epicotyl with a few scale leaves, followed by spirally arranged, conduplicate, dentate leaves.

== Growth and development ==

Trees of ''A. toxicaria'' develop according to Roux's architectural tree model, characterized by a continuously growing monopodial orthotropic trunk and plagiotropic branches. In a 27-year-old trial in Indonesia trees measured on average 17 m in height and 27 cm in diameter. In Java the trees flower in June on the new shoots.

== Other botanical information ==

Formerly, ''Antiaris'' comprised several species, but is now regarded monotypic. The variable species ''A. toxicaria'' has been divided into 5 subspecies. Subsp. ''toxicaria'' and subsp. ''macrophylla'' (R.Br.) C.C. Berg occur within the Malesian region; the first is found from Sri Lanka to Sulawesi, the second from the Philippines to Tonga. The size of the fruit increases from Africa to Polynesia.

The vernacular names "upas" and "ipoh" refer to plant poisons acting on the blood in general. Similarly, these names are used for ''Strychnos'' ("ipoh akar") and ''Sophora tomentosa'' L. ("upas biji" or "upas kamarunggi").

== Ecology ==

''A. toxicaria'' is a rare, scattered tree in primary forest up to 1500 m altitude. It is occasionally found in grassy savanna and on coastal plateaus. The morphological variation as observed in habit and various parts of the plant may well be linked to environmental factors. In Africa, it occurs under semi-arid conditions as well as in rain forest areas, or even in swamp forest.

== Propagation and planting ==

''A. toxicaria'' can be propagated by seed. About 70-90% of sown stones germinate in 18-89 days.

== Husbandry ==

Trees of ''A. toxicaria'' have a good self-pruning ability; they are not resistant to fire.

== Harvesting ==

The latex of ''A. toxicaria'' is tapped by making scores in the bark with a knife. It is only collected when required, as it cannot be stored and must be used fresh. The bark is harvested by stripping from the tree.

== Yield ==

The latex yield of a scarred tree may be 100-500 g in 2 days.

== Handling after harvest ==

An extensive list of traditional preparations and mixtures of "upas poison" can be made. In general, the latex from the root-bark or bark is mixed with other ingredients such as bark or roots of ''Strychnos'', ''Derris'' and other presumably irritating substances. The mixture is boiled over a fire to obtain a thick paste in which the dart and arrow points are dipped. The time over which the poison retains its potency is rather variable, apparently depending on mixture and method of preparation.

In Malaysia, bark cloth is obtained by shaving off the outer part from bark stripped from the tree, and beating and washing the inner fibrous part. Careful preparation is required, because traces of latex may irritate the skin.

== Genetic resources and breeding ==

Genetic erosion of ''A. toxicaria'' is difficult to assess, as trees are not widely harvested throughout their natural area of distribution, but generally occur at low densities.

== Prospects ==

The latex of ''A. toxicaria'' has been proposed as a medicine for heart diseases. As the crude drug extract varies in concentration and composition of the constituents, and given the extreme toxicity of the latex, it is rather difficult to standardize clinical applications.

== Literature ==

* Berg, C.C., 1977. Revisions of African Moraceae (excluding Dorstenia, Ficus, Musanga and Myrianthus). Bulletin du Jardin Botanique National de Belgique 47: 267-407. 
* Bisset, N.G., 1962. Cardiac glycosides: Part VI. Moraceae: The genus Antiaris Lesch. Planta Medica 10: 143-151. 
* Boer, E. & Sosef, M.S.M., 1998. Antiaris Lesch. In: Sosef, M.S.M., Hong, L.T. & Prawirohatmodjo, S. (Editors): Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 5(3). Timber trees: Lesser-known timbers. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, the Netherlands. pp. 73-75. 
* Browne, F.G., 1955. Forest trees of Sarawak and Brunei and their products. Government Printing Office, Kuching, Malaysia. pp. 348-349. 
* Burkill, I.H., 1966. A dictionary of the economic products of the Malay Peninsula. Revised reprint volume 1 (A-H). Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. pp. 175-185. 
* Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, 1948. The wealth of India: a dictionary of Indian raw materials & industrial products. Volume 1. Publications and Information Directorate, New Delhi, India. pp. 83--84. 
* Dolder, F., Tamm, C. & Reichstein, T., 1955. Die Glykoside von Antiaris toxicaria Lesch. Glykoside und Aglycone, 150 [Glycosides of Antiaris toxicaria Lesch. Glycoside and aglycones, 150]. Helvetica Chimica Acta 38(6): 1364-1396. 
* Hano, Y., Mitsui, P. & Nomura, T., 1990. Seven prenylphenols, antiarones C, D, E, F, G, H and I from the root bark of Antiaris toxicaria Lesch. Heterocycles 31(7): 1315-1324. 
* Pételot, A., 1954. Les plantes médicinales du Cambodge, du Laos et du Vietnam. [The medicinal plants of Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam]. Vol. 3. Centre National de Recherches Scientifiques et Techniques, Saigon, Vietnam. pp. 126-127. 
* Quisumbing, E., 1978. Medicinal plants of the Philippines. Katha Publishing Co., Quezon City, the Philippines. pp. 224-226.

== Other selected sources ==

*Backer, C.A. & Bakhuizen van den Brink Jr, R.C., 1963-1968. Flora of Java. 3 volumes. Noordhoff, Groningen, the Netherlands. Vol. 1 (1963) 647 pp., Vol. 2 (1965) 641 pp., Vol. 3 (1968) 761 pp.
*Bisset, N.G., Baser, H.C., Phillipson, J.D., Bohlin, L. & Sandberg, F., 1977. Muscle relaxant activity in Asian Strychnos species. A re examination of two Western Malaysian dart poisons. Lloydia 40(6): 546-560.
*Bruneton, J., 1995. Pharmacognosy, phytochemistry, medicinal plants. Technique & Documentation Lavoisier, Paris, France. 915 pp.
*Chew, W. L., 1989. Moraceae. In: George, A.S. (Editor): Flora of Australia. Vol. 3. Hamamelidales to Casuarinales. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra, Australia. pp. 15-68.
*Corner, E.J.H., 1962. The classification of Moraceae. Gardens' Bulletin, Singapore 19: 187-252.
*Corner, E.J.H., 1981. Moraceae. In: Dassanayake, M.D. & Fosberg, F.R. (Editors): A revised handbook to the flora of Ceylon. Vol. 3. Amerind Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, India. pp. 213-292.
*Corner, E.J.H., 1988. Wayside trees of Malaya. 3rd Edition. 2 volumes. The Malayan Nature Society, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. 774 pp.
*Fujimoto, Y., Suzuki, Y., Kanaiwa, T., Amiya, T., Hoshi, K. & Fujino, S., 1983. Studies on the Indonesian Antiaris toxicaria sap. Journal of Pharmacobiodynamics 6(2): 128-135.
*Gagnepain, F., 1928-1929. Moracées [Moraceae]. In: Gagnepain, F. (Editor): Flore générale de l'Indo Chine [General flora of Indo China]. Vol. 5. Masson & Cie, Paris, France. pp. 694-828.
*Hano, Y., Mitsui, P. & Nomura, T., 1990a. Two new prenylaurones, antiarones A and B, from the root bark of Antiaris toxicaria Lesch. Heterocycles 30(2): 1023-1030.
*Heyne, K., 1950. De nuttige planten van Indonesië [The useful plants of Indonesia]. 3rd Edition. 2 volumes. W. van Hoeve, 's Gravenhage, the Netherlands/Bandung, Indonesia. 1660 + CCXLI pp.
*Ho, L.M., Cheong, I., & Jalil, H.A., 1996. Rhabdomyolysis and acute renal failure following blowpipe dart poisoning. Nephron 72(4): 676-678.
*Kopp, B., Bauer, W.P. & Bernkop Schnürch, A., 1992. Analysis of some Malaysian dart poisons. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 36(1): 57-62.
*Nguyen Van Duong, 1993. Medicinal plants of Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos. Mekong Printing, Santa Ana, California, United States. 528 pp.
*Perry, L.M., 1980. Medicinal plants of East and Southeast Asia. Attributed properties and uses. MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States & London, United Kingdom. 620 pp.
*Purseglove, J.W., 1968-1972. Tropical crops. Longman, London. United Kingdom. Dicotyledons. 2 volumes (1968), 719 pp. Monocotyledons. 2 volumes (1972), 607 pp.
*Robillos, Y.U., 1976. Some medicinal forest trees in the Philippines. FORPRIDECOM Technical Note No 169. 3 pp.
*Shukla, O.P. & Crishna Murti, C.R., 1971. The biochemistry of plant latex. Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research 30: 640-662.
*Tran Dinh Ly, 1993. 1900 Loai cay co ich o Viet nam [1900 useful plant species in Vietnam]. Hanoi, Vietnam. 544 pp.
*Whitmore, T.C. & Ng, F.S.P. (Editors), 1972-1989. Tree flora of Malaya. A manual for foresters. 2nd Edition. 4 volumes. Malayan Forest Records No 26. Longman Malaysia Sdn. Berhad, Kuala Lumpur & Petaling Jaya, Malaysia.

== Authors ==

*E. Boer, M. Brink & M.S.M. Sosef


[[Category:Medicinal plants (PROSEA)]]
[[Category:PROSEA]]